What is the True Tekhelet?

What is the tekhelet that scholars, rabbis, and theologians are attempting to identify?

The smoke hovering over the battlefield of the “tekhelet debate” has billowed for centuries.

Around fifteen hundred to two thousand years ago the color and the source of the ancient biblical blue, known as tekhelet, was lost. The Jewish people have longed for its rediscovery. Scholars have searched for its identity.

There is one ancient substance that can pass the test as originating from a kosher source as well as being able to pass the Talmudic test of being a permanent, colorfast blue dye. It was the substance that initially excited the P’til Tekhelet foundation as being part of the Murex dye extraction. It was a substance used in ancient Egypt as well as in ancient Israel.

It is the ancient woad.

This article will attempt to demonstrate that the tekhelet of the book of Numbers was produced from woad (Isatis tinctoria) which, after the vast import of dyes from India, eventually became replaced by Indigofera tinctoria. Because of the impermanent nature of Indigofera dye, as well as its unclean manufacturing method, the early rabbis began searching for a purer, more permanent dye. This need was met by the Murex snail (or the cuttlefish according to others). The impermanence of Indigofera tinctoria, which early rabbis referred to as Kela-ilan, was of such major concern that it was considered wrong to use it for tekhelet. Methods of testing the colorfastness of dye were utilized in determining if a dye could be used for tekhelet. The identity of woad dye as tekhelet, however, had been lost in the shuffle.

Woad, which produces a permanent dye superior to Indigofera, was used by the ancients. Woad is identical in color and chemical composition to the dye of the Murex snail and Kela-ilan (Indigofera tinctoria), but passes all tests as a colorfast dye from a kosher source.

The symbolism of this substance and how it is manufactured hold deep symbolic and spiritual meaning.

Tekhelet (Hebrew: תכלת ) is the Hebrew transliteration for the word “blue” describing a specific dye to be used in the Temple of God and on the garments of his people. This blue dye is mentioned 48 times in the Jewish Bible (Tanakh) but was translated as hyakinthinos (Greek: ὑακίνθινος, blue) by the Septuagint version of the Bible. The uses of the dye included the clothing of the High Priest, the tapestries in the Tabernacle (Mishkan), and a thread, or threads, on the corner tassels of the tallit (ones garment and/or prayer shawl).

The instructions for using the tekhelet on the tassels of the tallit appear in the book of Numbers:

“And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, “Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes in the borders of their garments throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the corners a ribband, a thread of blue: And it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the LORD, and do them ; and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which you used to follow harlotry. Then you will remember to obey all my commands and will be consecrated to your God.”

Numbers 15:37-39

Source of the Dye

The garment worn by Jews today as a prayer shawl is known as the “tallit.” It is traditionally made of wool, which has ribbons of blue (or black) on the borders of the garment and tassels on the four corners of the garment. The tassels are white. Originally one to four threads of each of the tassels was to be dyed blue. Rabbinical Jews maintain that only a specific dye — the original blue — may be used in dying these threads. At some point after the loss of the second Temple the exact identity of tekhelet — the blue of the Bible — became lost. Not knowing the exact identity of the biblical blue, rabbinical Jews have been wearing white tassels only on their garments, but long for the day when they can once again keep the sacred commandment to wear the tekhelet on their garments. A number of attempts to identify the tekhelet have resulted in some interesting theories.

The Bible (Torah) simply states that the material must be blue. Sources after the destruction of the second Temple attempts to identify “which blue” by identifying the source of the dye. According to rabbinical tradition the tekhelet is derived from a source called the Chilizon.

Chilazon

The chilazon, the source from which the tekhelet dye was obtained according to rabbinic tradition, is described in the Talmud. We are told its body is the color of the sea, its form is that of a fish, it appears every seventy years (or every seven years according to Masechet Tzitzt), its blood is used for tekhelet, and it is expensive.

Sepia officinalas

Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner embarked on an extensive research program in 1887 and found the Sepia officinalis (Common Cuttlefish) to meet many of the above Talmudic criteria. This new tekhelet produced from the cuttlefish quickly caught on among the Rabbi’s followers and within one year, 10,000 Radziner Hassidim wore the colored tzitzit. The dye soon became popular also with Breslover Hassidim.

It was later discovered that the blue produced from the cuttlefish did not come from the fish itself but was a by-product of the cuttlefish fluid reaction to iron filings. Some felt the dye had to come from the creature itself, so more research ensued.

Janthina

Rav Herzog’s doctoral research on the subject of the tekhelet, attempted to demonstrate that the Murex trunculus was the genuine “Chillazon”. However, he failed to consistently achieve blue dye from the small blue snail. In 2002 Dr. S.W. Kaplan of Rehovot, Israel proclaimed that he was able to dye wool with the extract of Janthina. To date this claim has not been substantiated.

Murex trunculus

The Murex trunculus, a sea snail, is the currently accepted source of the tekhelet dye. The first Chief Rabbi of Israel, Rabbi Yitzhak Halevi Herzog, wrote his doctoral thesis in 1913 on the tekhelet and named the Murex snail as the most likely candidate for the source of the dye. The Murex fulfilled many of the Talmudic criteria, but his inability to consistently obtain blue dye from the snail became a major obstacle. However, in the 1980’s a chemist, Otto Elsner, discovered that if a solution of the dye was exposed to sunlight, blue instead of purple was consistently produced. In 1993, the Ptil Tekhelet Foundation was formed for mass production of this tekhelet, as well as to continue further research.

Kosher Techelet?

Although the Murex sea snail is currently advanced as the source of the coveted dye, many are uneasy with the fact that the dye is obtained from an unclean or non-kosher animal.

The Bible (Torah) says that “all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you” (Lev.11:10) It further tells us that “ye shall have their carcases in abomination.” According to these verses sea creatures such as the Murex snail, the cuttlefish, or Janthina were an “abomination” and even their carcasses were to be considered an “abomination” and anyone simply touching them became unclean.

Rabbeinu Bachyei insisted that only kosher species may be used for the mishkan. The Gemara states that “only items that one may eat may be used for the work of Heaven.”[1] Nachmanides, Torah scholar and famed Jewish theologian, emphasized that the commandment concerning unclean animals pertained also to temple services.

Of course one could argue that the blue color of the resultant dye from the cuttlefish was totally due to the iron filings, “salts” and acids that were added to the fluid extract of the cuttlefish, therefore after the dye was extracted from the fluid the remaining dye was clean. One could also argue that since the fluid from the Murex snail is nothing more than the precursor to the dye, that once the resultant dye is extracted from the fluid of the snail that the dye is kosher. However, anything simply touching the unclean became unclean in itself, so that presents another problem. How would one even determine if all of the animal fluid had been removed?

Would the Torah devote so much time and effort describing unclean animals and the resultant polluting of oneself by touching them and then turn right around and command the use of unclean animal fluid to sanctify the mishkan and the ztit-ztits? Many do not think so.

So if indeed these creatures are considered non-kosher, unclean animals, than what should one use for the tekhelet? How about Indigofera tinctoria?

Kela-Ilan

The Talmud mentions a counterfeit dye from a plant called Kela-ilan, known today as Indigofera tinctoria. The Talmud explains that it is absolutely forbidden to use this counterfeit dye intentionally but if one was duped, the threads are still kosher, however they simply do not fulfill the religious requirement for tekhelet strings.

Indigofera tinctoria is identified by most authorities as Kela-ilan (also see Nimukei Yosef Baba Metziah 34a), however indigo was most often mixed with other substances including the dye dibromo-indigo. It was traditionally made by mixing Indigofera with urine and allowing it to rot and ferment.

One prohibition for wearing the Kela-ilan resulted because some were hypocritically feigning to be wearing the more expensive, authentic tekhelet (R. Twerski. Pg 102, n.62). This would be similar to taking off the hood ornament of a Volkswagen and replacing it with the ornament of a Mercedes Benz and parading it around town to those who could not afford a Mercedes. Also true techelet was very expensive, and unscrupulous dealers made much money selling the counterfeit Kela-ilan.

However, the major reason that Kela-ilan was unsuitable was because it was not a steadfast dye.

Talmudic references gave specific tests in order to determine if the tekhelet is valid. These chemical tests were developed by the Sages to determine if the dye was fit to be used as the tekhelet (see Menachot 43a, Rashi and Rambam).

Woad and the Murex Snail

The most practical Murex snail dying technique required a fermenting vat for the process. However, this required modern chemicals that ancients would not have had access to. This presented a great obstacle.

Then a breakthrough discovery provided the answer. In 1995, Dr. Cardon found and translated a 1418 Florentine recipe for a vat process that used an indigoid plant called woad. Woad could be used in processing the blue dye from the Murex snail. This technique involved fermentation. Woad leaves were placed into hot alkaline water and allowed to set for awhile, and then the resulting liquid became capable of reducing indigo. Research revealed that this fermentation process was not purely chemical but rather microbiological.

The “P’til Tekhelet” foundation learned about the breakthrough and requested John Edmonds of England, a retired engineer who had been interested in ancient dyeing for years, to attempt to repeat the process.[2][3]

Unfortunately when Mr. Edmonds found that woad fermentation brings its own indigo in, he felt it obscured the results of how much indigo that Murex contributed. So, he turned to fermentation from cockles’ meat.

Had they continued with woad they would have not only discovered a most ancient method of creating a steadfast dye but they would have realized the true nature of tekhelet.

Woad in Ancient Egypt

Woad, or dyer’s woad, comes from Isatis tinctoria L., a member of the mustard family, the Brassicaceae. Isatis contains some 30 species of biennial or perennial herbs, distributed from the Mediterranean to central Asia. Isatis tinctoria is native to Europe, North Africa and western Asia. [4] Woad is occasionally known as Asp of Jerusalem.

Scholars of spectral and photophysical research inform us that “The natural indigo plant source woad, Isatis tinctoria, was known throughout Europe and the Middle East as far back as the time of the ancient Egyptians, who used it to dye the cloth wrappings applied for the mummies.” [5] Skelton writes “Many early dyes were discovered by the ancient Egyptians, such as blue woad (Isatis tinctoria).” [6] Woad dye has been found on cloth of about 2500 BC and on later mummy wrappings.[7] One source tells us, “Two Greek papyri found in Egypt, and studied by Pfister and other scholars, mention the use of a limited number of local dye sources for dying wool [including] Isatis tinctoria (woad).” [8]

Formerly various blue dyed fabrics discovered in ancient Egypt were thought to be Indigofera but A. Lucas informs us, “What has been assumed to have been Indian Indigo on ancient Egyptian fabrics may have been woad.” [9] According to one source “indigotin, probably derived from the leaves of the woad plant, was used by the ancient Egyptians as early as the 18th Dynasty .” [10]

An ancient tassel discovered in Qumran is now believed to have been dyed with woad. [11] This find predates the Talmud, it’s reflections on the chilizon, and the appearance of the kela-ilan problem. This appears to indicate that woad was indeed the original tekhelet of the Jewish people.

Roberts poses the question, “Which of the following – ceramic pot, silk yarn, glass, woad or wheel – has the oldest archaeological record?” Her answer is that fired pottery is the oldest but continues to say, “Surprisingly, woad comes second, long before the wheel, silk or glass; mankind was storing woad seeds in the Stone Age, possibly as early as 7,000 years ago. Fragments of blue-coloured linen or hemp found caught in an implement at a cave site in Adaouste in Southern France were dated to the Neolithic, while the inhabitants of other Neolithic sites were storing woad seeds.” [12]

The children of Israel were delivered from Egypt, the very nation which utilized the dye from woad. Would it not make perfect sense to deduce that the Israelites had knowledge of woad also?

Which Blue is True?

The original command to use tekhelet came from the Torah which does not specify what source tekhelet is to be derived from. We do know they had just been delivered from Egypt which had a history of using woad for blue dye. We are also informed that they wandered in the desert for many years where it would have been impossible to fish for sea snails.

The only source that really attempts to identify the tekhelet is the Talmud. Statements in the Talmud and the Tosefta (supplement to the Mishna) concerning chilazon were no doubt motivated by the need for permanence, the chilazon being the only known permanent dye source at the time. Talmudic references give specific tests in order to determine if a dye is valid tekhelet. Sages developed these chemical tests to determine if the dye was fit to be used as the tekhelet (see Menachot 43a, Rashi and Rambam). These tests were to ultimately show if the dye was colorfast. Kela-ilan, Indigofera tinctoria, could not pass the test.

Lo ifrad hazutei – If its color is permanent then its valid (Men. 43a). The Tiferet Yisrael (Hakdamah to Seder Mo‘ed, pp. 15b–16a) and others suggest that any dye of the correct blue color and colorfastness can be used. Rabbi Yisroel Lipschutz, author of the Tiferet Yisroel commentary on the Mishnah, writes in Kupat HaRochlim that any blue dye that is able to pass the chemical tests outlined in the Talmud may be used.

Kela-ilan could not past the tests.

Woad passes with flying colors!!!

Aimson writing about woad, says, “Its blue dye is more permanent than indigofera indigo.” [13] [14]

In the Cambridge University Press McNeil describes the process of making woad dye and says, “The dye then gave a strong and permanent blue.” [15]

Dr. Uhlman writes, “But woad was especially important because, in addition to color, its particular chemistry fixed other more “fugitive” dyes (like orchil and brazil- wood) and made them permanent.” [16]

It is recorded that woad “was so superior that woad-dyed fabric became part of sumptuary laws and was reserved for royalty.” [17]

Woad clearly passes all Talmudic requirements as a steadfast dye.

Which Blues Should We Choose?

The Talmud tells us that Kela-ilan is identical in color to the original tekhelet.

Research has shown that the dye from the Murex snail is identical in both color and chemistry as Kela-ilan (indigofera tinctoria).

Research has also shown that WOAD is identical in color and chemistry to both the Murex snail and Kela-ilan!

Let me repeat for emphasis — the dyes from the Murex snail, Kela-ilan, and woad are identical in both chemistry and in color!!!

Huxtable writes that “the dye obtained from both woad (Isatis tinctoria) and indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) is chemically identical” and that “the blue of the tekhelet is chemically identical to the blue of woad and indigo.” [18] [19]

In his Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, A. Lucas writes, “The coloring matter [of woad and Indigofera tinctoria] of which, if not absolutely identical, is so much alike that it is difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between them.” [20]

The Woad Less Traveled

In Rambam’s commentary on the Mishna, at the beginning of the chapter Hatechelet (in tractate Menachot) he says, “We are not in possession of it (ie. the Tekhelet) presently, because we do not know how to dye it since not all blue dyes usable for wool are called by the proper name ‘Tekhelet’ only the specific ‘Tekhelet’, we therefore can not dye it at this time, and thus we use only the white (strings for Tzitzit).” This same sentiment is repeated in Responsum 46, that now we use only the white (strings).

In Hilchos Tzittzit 2:1 Rambam makes a statement that clearly is not to be equated with the prohibition and the curse of using kela-ilan, but does express his prejudice against using non-colorfast dyes. He says, “The term techelet when used regarding tzitzit refers to a specific dye that remains beautiful without changing.” He continues to say that if the techelet is not dyed with this dye, it is not fit to be used as tzitzit “even though it is sky blue in color.” Why would the dye not be fit? It would not be fit if it does not remain beautiful without changing. In other words—it must be colorfast. He gives examples such as black dyes, dark dyes and even isatis (In Rambams time they often incorrectly referred to Indigofera Tinctora as isatis. Most probably they confused two different plants, Indigofera Tinctora and Isatis lusitanica which both produced the same dye–indigo). However, it would not be these dyes that were not fit but the way these dyes were being processed which rendered them as impermanent, non-colorfast dyes. As we have seen, woad properly processed will absolutely be a dye that “remains beautiful without changing.” Even more so than mollusk dyes!

In Halacha three he says, “Even though it was purchased from a recognized dealer, if it was checked, and it was discovered that it was dyed with another dark dye which is not of a permanent nature, it is not acceptable.” A footnote to this statement informs us, “The Rambam’s statements appear to imply that the blood of the chilazon must be used for tzitzit, not because of a Torah decree, but because it was the only lasting dye they had.” (Kinat Eliyahu).

It is very plain to see that somewhere in time the correct procedure for processing woad became lost!

Rabbi Dr. Ari Zivotofsky informs us that although both isatis (woad) and kela-ilan both denote indigo and are both the same color as the tekhelet “the terms are not interchangeable.” He continues to say, “Isatis referred to the woad plant, (Isatis tinctoria) . . . while Kela-ilan corresponded to Indigofera tinctoria.”

Many other authorities inform us that Indigofera was clearly Kela-ilan. Woad was not.

Kela-ilan may have indeed dethroned woad for a period of time but it could not erase its place in ancient history nor hinder it’s resurgence to its rightful place in the twenty first century.

Mishnah

A passage in the Mishnah states that the priest is not to raise his hands to pray while his hands were stained with woad because the attention of the people would be on his hands (Mishnah, Megillah 4:7) indicating that in some place and time the priests did indeed dye with woad.

By the Sea

Woad’s blades are a bluish green color of the sea, the form of the leaves are that of an oblong. The Hebrews would have allowed its harvest to rest and regrow every 7 years and again every 70 years. Its resin is used for tekhelet; And in some places and times it was an expensive dye.

Its habitat is mostly the sandy or gravelly sea shores and kelp banks (although it can also be found in desert zones such as Sinai). Woad can be found on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and it has been suggested that woad is native to the coastal steppe around the Black Sea.

Megillah 6a tells us that the source for tekhelet, referred to here as chilazon, can be found on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

The Woad to Discovery

When Roman legions invaded Britain in 55 BC they were allegedly confronted with warriors painted with blue dye from woad. Actors in the movie “Braveheart” recreated the woad painted warriors of old. It is now believed that the healing powers of woad expedited the healing of wounds in the ancient warriors following battle. The renowned herbalist Culpepper praised the healing properties of woad.

Now modern science is discovering many other healthful uses for woad, including the fight against cancer.

The following article appeared in the BBC News:

“ War paint plant ‘tackles cancer.’

A plant Celts used to get blue dye for their war paint is a rich source of a compound that fights breast cancer, scientists have found. Woad, which belongs to the same plant family as cauliflower and broccoli, contains high levels of the compound glucobrassicin.

The Italian team at Bologna University discovered woad contains 20 times more glucobrassicin than broccoli.

They were also able to boost its concentration by damaging the plant.

When the leaves are damaged, glucobrassicin is released by the plant as a defence mechanism. Its derivatives can kill some plant pests. Notably, they also have anti-tumour properties and are particularly effective against breast cancer.” [21] [22]

The tapestries in the Tabernacle and the covering over the Ark of the Covenant were dyed in tekhelet. We have just learned that woad has substances that can kill pests. Perhaps there was something in woad which assisted in the preservation of the tapestries and articles they covered in the Tabernacle.

The marvels of woad are just now being discovered by science.

Woad is so sufficient in creating dye that woad was initially the choice ingredient used in processing the dye from the Murex snail.

It was once believed that it was gathered from the rocks on the sea shore because when burned it had the scent of the sea.

Dyeing for the Truth

We have discovered some very valuable information about woad thus far.

We have discovered that woad was used in ancient Egypt, from which the Israelites had been delivered, and that traces of woad has been found on ancient Egyptian mummies.

Woad was discovered as the dye which was used on tassels discovered at the archeological dig in Qumran.

Megillah 6a states that it can be found on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and woad grows by the shores of the sea.

The Mishnah states that the priest is not to raise his hands to pray while his hands were stained with woad, because the attention of the people would be on his hands (Mishnah, Megillah 4:7)

Woad was the first ingredient of choice for initiating the process of making tekhelet dye from the Murex snail.

Woad is not the Kela-ilan which the Talmud prohibits.

Woad produces a dye that is identical to that of Kela-ilan and the Murex snail.

Woad is a superior, permanent, colorfast dye that can pass all the tests outlined in the Talmud with “flying colors!”

The True Blue

The search for the authentic tekhelet seems to be over.

We have discovered it.

It is indigotin, the chemical dye discovered in the Murex snail, Indigofera tinctoria, and woad.

The Murex snail, Indigofera tinctoria, and woad all have in common that they only produce the PRECURSER to the dye called indigotin. Regardless of which source is used the end product is the same—indigotin.

Whether or not you agree that woad was the original source of tekhelet, woad still passes all requirements for authentic uses for tekhelet. There is no disputing that woad produces the very same chemical tekhelet as Murex or Indigofera.

Woad is from a kosher source.

Woad passes all Talmudic tests for being a steadfast dye.

Woad produces pure tekhelet.

In Summery

Woad (Isatis tinctoria) was most likely the source for tekhelet during the time of Moses. The memory of this source was lost after the Babylonian captivity. With the vast import of dyes from India, woad eventually became replaced by Indigofera tinctoria.

Because of the impermanent nature of Indigofera dye, as well as its unclean manufacturing method, the early rabbi’s began searching for a purer, more permanent dye. This need was met by the Murex snail (or the cuttlefish according to others) which was the only dye they were aware of which was lasting.

Sometime after the destruction of the second Temple the identity of the chilazon became lost. After having lost the identity of the source for tekhelet for a second time in history, rabbinical authority stated one should wear no tekhelet at all until such a time when the source was rediscovered.

Today we have rediscovered the true tekhelet.

The true tekhelet was and still is indigotin.

During the first Temple period the source for indigotin was most probably woad. During the second Temple period the source for indogotin was most probably the Murex snail (chilizon).

The tekhelet must be a colorfast blue dye that remains beautiful without changing.

There is one ancient substance that can produce the pure biblical blue, from a kosher source, while at the same time being able to pass the Talmudic test of being a permanent, colorfast dye. It has the identical color and composition of Murex and Kela-ilan. It was the substance that initially excited the P’til Tekhelet foundation as being part of the Murex dye extraction. It was a substance used in ancient Egypt as well as in ancient Israel — it is the ancient woad.

Woad, more than any other source, has the potential to produce a non-controversial blue dye as well as returning to the world the very ancient and pure biblical techelet.

By Dr. Curtis Ward

References

1. ^ Shabbos 28a
2. ^ Kitrossky, Levi, Do We Know Tekhelet?
3. ^ http://www.tekhelet.com/kitrossky/tekhelet.htm
4. ^ http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/seeds-of-trade/print.dsml?ref=dyes
5. ^ Spectral and Photophysical Studies of Substituted Indigo Derivatives in Their Keto Forms J. Sérgio Seixas de Melo Dr., Raquel Rondão, Hugh D. Burrows Prof. Dr., Maria J. Melo Dr., Suppiah Navaratnam Dr., Ruth Edge Dr., Gundula Voss Dr., ChemPhysChem, Volume 7, Issue 11, pages 2303–2311, November 13, 2006
6. ^ Skelton, H., A Colour Chemist’s History of Western Art, – Review of Progress in Coloration and Related, 1999
7. ^ Natural History Museum,Seeds of Trade
8. ^ The identification of haematite as a red colorant on an Egyptian textile from the second millenium BC, J Wouters, L Maes… – Studies in conservation, 1990
9. ^ A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries
10. ^ White Wool, the Growth of the Ancient Dye Industry and an Expanding Colour Vocabulary, GJ Smith, IJ Miller, V Daniels, A. Smith. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists Volume 113, Issue 4, pages 124–126, April 1997
11. ^ Ziderman, I.Irving, The Biblical Dye Tekhelet and its Use in Jewish Textiles
12. ^ Roberts, Teresinha, History of Woad
13. ^ Aimson, Kate, Using Natural Plant Dyes, Published Beltane 1999
14. ^ http://www.whitedragon.org.uk/articles/dyes.htm
15. ^ McNeil, NB, Colour and Colour Terminology – Journal of Linguistics, 1972 – Cambridge Univ Press
16. ^ Lamdin, Laura C., Chaucer’s Pilgrims: An historical guide to the pilgrims in The Canterbury tales
17. ^ http://ancientstandard.com/2010/12/27/woad-not-just-for-warriors-anymore/
18. ^ Huxtable, Ryan J., The Mutability of Blue
19. ^ http://molinterv.aspetjournals.org/content/1/3/141.full
20. ^ A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries
21. ^ BBC News, Sunday, 13 August 2006, 23:00 GMT 00:00 UK
22. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4783831.stm

LINKS

You may read more about woad at the following link:

All About Woad

You may order woad dye at the following links:

Woad Dye and Seeds

The Woad Kit

Woad Dye

Woad Pigment

Woad powder

Other interesting sites on the tekhelet:

P’til Tekhelet – Tying Tzitzit   (Avocates Murex snail dye)

How to Tie the Tzitzit of Your Tallit     (Advocates kosher vegetable dye)

Zipporah’s Thimble (Zipporah Reshel Designs )

.

http://www.woad.org.uk/

http://www.woad.org.uk/html/dye_and_seed.html

http://www.woad.org.uk/html/woad_kit_0.html

http://www.bleu-de-lectoure.com

http://www.ekmpowershop3.com/ekmps/shops/woadinc/woad-pigment—the-dye-60-p.asp

http://woad.weebly.com/powder.html

The Holy Anointing Oil

The Holy Anointing oil, or the Shemen Ha’Mishchah (שמן המשחה), formed an integral part of the Old Testament ritual in the ordination of the priesthood as well as in the consecration of the articles of the Tabernacle. The primary purpose of anointing with the holy anointing oil was to cause the anointed persons or objects to become ha’kodesh – most holy.[1]

Originally the oil was used exclusively for the priesthood and the Tabernacle articles but was later extended to include prophets and kings. It was forbidden to be used on an outsider[2] or to be used as an emollient on the body of any common persons [3] and the children of Israel were forbidden to duplicate any like it for themselves.[4]

The Holy anointing oil described in Exodus 30:22-25 was created from:[5][6]

• Pure Myrrh, מר דרור mar deror, 500 shekels (about 6 kg)
• Sweet Cinnamon, קנמן בשם kinnemon besem, 250 shekels (about 3 kg)
• Sweet Calamus, or Sweet cane, קנה בשם keneh bosem, 250 shekels (about 3 kg)
• Cassia, קדה kiddah, 500 shekels (about 6 kg)
• Olive oil, שמן זית shemen sayith, one hin (about 5 quarts according to Adam Clarke; about 4 L according toShiurei Torah, 7 L according to the Chazon Ish)

The oil was used to anoint the vessels of the Tabernacle[7] and the High Priest. It is traditionally regarded as the oil used by prophets to anoint Saul, David, and other kings of ancient Israel as well as to anoint the prophets themselves.

History

In modern western societies odors such as the stench of dead bodies, feces, and sweat are largely eradicated. The olfactory organ is much less depended on for survival than are those of sight and hearing. [8] The Old Testament Israelite way of life came from a cultural environment in which the sense of smell was highly depended on for survival and was highly esteemed. It contributed to the ability of man to orientate himself and to find his way in a world where life and death were permanently struggling. Where stench arose, he diagnosed the presence of disease, decay, rotting processes and death (Ex vii, 18)[9] and where pleasant aromas existed were places biologically clean and conducive to habitation and/or food production and harvesting. Spices and oils were chosen which assisted man in orientating himself and in creating a sense of safety as well as as a sense of elevation above the physical world of decay. The sense of smell was also considered highly esteemed by deity. In Deut. iv 28 and Psalms cxv 5-6 the sense of smell is included in connection with the polemics against idols. An anthropomorphic Old Testament conception of Yahweh takes pleasure in inhaling the soothing odor (reah hannihoah) of offerings (Gen. viii 21; Ex. xxix 18; 1 Sam. xxvi 19; Lev. xxvi 31; Amos verse 21). [10] The ancient Egyptians used scented anointing oils when coronating the Pharaohs. They usually used fats from animals depicting strength and courage. To the ancient Israelite there was no oil or fat with more symbolic meaning than olive oil. It was used as an emollient, a fuel for keeping their lamps lit, as a food, and for many other purposes. The first mention of the olive tree in the Torah appeared in the book of Genesis after the global flood when the dove carries an olive branch in its beak announcing that the destruction of the sinful world was complete and that the new world had emerged. It was scented olive oil which was chosen to represent a holy anointing oil for the Israelites. The symbolism of the components in the holy anointing oil are no longer completely known but, as the other articles in the mishkan, had great meaning to the early Israelites. It is believed that the Ha’Mishchah has spiritual connections with the Ha’Ketoret.[11]

The Continuity Factor

Some believe in the continuity factor relative to the Holy Anointing Oil.

Customs utilizing the continuity factor is found in many of the world’s religions. Early Jewish rabbi’s stressed the importance of the succession of classical semikhah . The Catholic Church emphasized the importance of Apostolic succession, the continuity of laying on of hands for ordination, in an unbroken chain.

One Jewish tradition teaches that the ashes of the last red heifer sacrificed were always mixed with the ashes of each new red heifer [12] The Temple Institute states, “Some opinions maintain that the newer ashes were always mixed together with a combination of the previous ashes. One way of understanding this, is to the view this mixture of old and new ashes as being yet another precautionary measure . . . Additionally, mixing in the newer ashes we have produced now with those from olden times is a way of connecting through time with the original heifer that was slaughtered and prepared by Moses. As such, in a sense, it is a way of connecting with the level of Moses himself.”[13] [14] Since the last succession of ashes [15] of the red heifer were either hidden or lost after 70 AD [16] certain groups today are searching for the original ashes by following the map on the Copper Scroll that purports to tell the location, so that the old ashes can be added to the new, thus continuing the continuity factor.[17]

Some Jewish people reportedly remove a small piece of the sourdough challah and give it away to someone else as a challah starter. In one Jewish custom a portion of the challah is set aside (refrigerated) until the making of new challah when the old is added to the new (however this is not the piece of challah which according to traditional Jewish law, may not be eaten, and must thus be destroyed in a dignified manner).[18]  The Churches of the East keep back a portion of their liturgical bread, called the Holy Malka, and when new bread is made the old is added to the new. It is claimed this continuity reaches back to the original loaf used by Christ and his disciples at the last supper.[19] They also add a portion of the old anointing oil to the newly made anointing oil to establish a continuity of the oil, believed to reach back to the early disciples (see section below).

It is recorded in Exodus 30:31 “And thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel, saying, This shall be an holy anointing oil unto me throughout your generations.” [20] Commenting on this verse Rashi quotes a teaching of the Sages [Horiyos 11b] that the original Shemen HaMishcha that Moses made, to anoint the priesthood and the tabernacle furnishings, would remain intact in its entirety into the distant future (l’asid lavoh). When the Temple was to be rebuilt they would then need that very same Holy Anointing Oil to anoint the priests prior to their service in the Third Temple as well as to anoint the furnishings of the mishkin.[21] It is obvious that such a small quantity of oil (around a gallon) would not last that long. It is claimed that one juglet of oil lasted over 800 years.[22] To explain this discrepancy it is claimed that one of two things occurred: Either the container of Holy Anointing Oil miraculously multiplied when supply became low (as did the cruise of oil mentioned in the story of Elijah and the widow woman as well as the miracle at the time of the Chanukah story of the oil that lasted for eight days without being consumed) or, following the custom of the continuity factor, new oil was added to the old, thus continuing the original oil for all time. The question arises if the original Holy Anointing oil, or it’s descendent substance, is no longer available then how will the priesthood and the tabernacle be sanctified holy? The answer would be to locate some of the original Holy Anointing Oil or it’s descendant substance.

The search for this oil has led some to follow the map of the copper scroll (see section below). Olive oil residues may last countless centuries. A glass flask from before or during the life of Christ was unearthed in Israel and it still bears the residue of the olive oil it once contained. The residue is still easily identifiable. The residue from an olive press in Karanis, Egypt was determined by scientific analysis to be olive oil residue. For many years, this olive residue was thought to be bread, until scientific analysis determined its true nature.[23] A combined gas chromatography-electron ionization , atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, mass spectrometry and MS/MS approach has been used for characterizing organic residues of ceramic vessels from a vault in a 13th century church in Sant’Antimo in Piombino. The data showed organic markers of vegetable residues. [24] Cream of tartar, a byproduct of wine-making, was found as a residue in ancient jugs found in Iran indicating that wine has been existent for c 7,000 years. [25] In 2005 a Greek and American interdisciplinary team investigated two shipwrecks off the coast of Chios dating to the 4th-century B.C. The project pioneered archaeological methods of precision acoustic, digital imaging, and chemical analysis. Chemical and molecular biological analysis of two amphoras from the 4th-century wreck revealed ancient DNA of olive oil which was part of a cargo, among other substances, outbound from Chios. [26] A team from Bonn University’s Egyptian Museum is studying the residue of a perfume belonging to the ancient Egyptian Queen, Pharaoh Hatshepsut. The team is trying to recreate the scent worn by the Pharaoh, who ruled Egypt in the 15th century B.C., by using the dried-out remnants of a scented oil found in a metal jar in her tomb.[27] The modern scientific achievements in discovering such ancient residues which have survived the ravages of time presents the possibility that a portion of the HaMishchah may have survived in some manner. Some believe it can be found and have searched for it. One search for the Holy Anointing Oil, and the treasures of the copper scroll, purportedly led to the archaeological discovery of the Juglet of Qumran.

Alleged discoveries of the ancient Holy Anointing Oil

The Juglet of Qumran

The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in Qumran in 1947. Over 900 ancient documents written on parchment and papyrus were carefully preserved and buried in sealed vessels. Written between 150 BC and 70 AD the discovered treasures included the oldest known surviving copies of Biblical and extra-Biblical documents, making it one of the most sensational archeological discoveries in centuries.[28] Whether written by the priesthood of the Essenes, the Zadokite priests in Jerusalem, or some other ancient Jewish sect has not been determined with certainty.

Among the scrolls discovered was a most intriguing scroll made of thin sheets of copper found in cave number three. Translations of the ancient Hebrew text revealed the copper scroll was a treasure map revealing where valuable treasure was buried.[29] The treasure of the copper scrolls has been assumed to be the treasure of the Jewish Temple, presumably the Second Temple, among other options. One theory says that the treasures could be that of the First Temple, built by King Solomon and later destroyed by King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon in 586 BC, with the scrolls having been left in a cave during the Babylonian Exile, possibly with a small community of caretakers who were precursors of the Dead Sea Scrolls community. There is mention in the scroll of the “House of Hakkoz”, with the family of Hakkoz being treasurers of the rebuilt Temple, following the return from Babylon, as listed in the Biblical Books of Ezra and Nehemiah.

Following the map inscribed on the ancient copper scroll an archaeological team began excavation in the Qumran area. In April of 1988 a small juglet was discovered containing a very thick liquid believed to be the Holy Anointing Oil of the Temple. Intensive testing by the Pharmaceutical Department of Hebrew University, financed by the Vendyl Jones Research Institute, allegedly verified that the substance inside the small juglet was indeed the ancient Holy Anointing Oil. On February 15, 1989, the New York Times newspaper broke the news of the discovery to the public.[30] During the ensuing few weeks, major networks such as ABC, CBS, NBC and CNN, carried the story on national and international television. In October, 1989, National Geographic Magazine featured the find, followed by Omni Magazine in December of the same year. Countless other news sources carried the story. The VJRI stated, “The finding of the oil was important for two reasons. It is the first item to be found from the First Temple period and is one of the items listed among the treasures in the Copper Scroll.” They added that“the oil was used as the fragrance on the oblation for a sweet smelling savor on the sacrifices. It was also used as the Holy Anointing Oil for the priest, prophets and kings.” It has been variously referred to as the Holy Anointing Oil, Shemen Afarshimon, or Shemen HaMishchah. Jones wrote that “the Holy Anointing Oil was made by Moses himself and was for all generations to come. Moses made 24 juglets of the Holy Anointing Oil . . . this twenty-second juglet was used for 844 years . . . less than a third of the juglet was used. This is the juglet of the Holy Anointing Oil that our team found in 1988. Since that juglet was made by Moses himself, it is the item of earliest antiquity in Israel.”[31]

The Jerusalem Juglet

An ancient glass anointing juglet was discovered in Israel, found in excavations of the Jewish Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem in the early part of the century.[32] The glass juglet was a hand blown piece believed to have been crafted by a Judean artisan. It appeared to be created in the typical style of the Roman Empire, but could easily fit anywhere within the period of 37 BC to 100 AD. Authenticated by scholars and archeologists, as well as groups such as the IAA and members of the Archaeological and Anthropological Society of Victoria and the Numismatic Association of America, it eventually ended up being transported from a gallery in Jerusalem, Israel to a gallery in Australia.[33] It was advertised as “Ancient Roman glass anointing juglet discovered in the Holy Land.” The olive colored bottle was intact with a very small loss on the pouring spout. A second angled dispensing spout projected from the body. Vessels of this type were used for dispensing oils and other liquids in small controlled quantities – in religious, priestly functions – sacrificing, anointing, purifying, etc. It measured 104mm (H) x 72mm (W). What seemed to be mineral deposits lined the inside of the glass juglet. Subsequent tests allegedly revealed that the deposits within the juglet were indeed the aged remains of the Holy Anointing Oil of Exodus 30. The juglet remains in the gallery in Australia.

The Juglet of Hebron

Another find, “The Juglet of Hebron,” an ancient black anointing oil juglet, was discovered in an archeological excavation in the ancient city of Hebron in the early part of the century.[38] Although believed to have existed during David’s reign in Hebron, it was dated between 1000 to 800 BC. Authenticated by archeologists as well as members of the Archaeological Institute of America, the juglet was sold from Israel to a private collector in the United States. A faint but detectable image of a Hebrew letter etched on the outside of the juglet reportedly authenticates it’s ritual use. The tested residues in the juglet are allegedly residues of the Holy Anointing Oil.

Other Alleged Finds 

“The Messianic Holy Anointing Oil vial” was discovered by an elderly monk living as a hermit in the Old City of Jerusalem in the 1960s, excavating inside an ancient grotto located in the immediate vicinity of the Upper Room on Mount Zion.[34] Fischer says that at least two of the objects were obvious ceremonial pieces which may have been used by James the Just, the brother of Jesus.[35] A stone that is believed to be the base for the vial is a brick-sized block of well-worn local marble. This block bears an ancient Aramaic inscription that reads “La Shemen Ruehon” or “For the Oil of the Spirit.”[36] [37] The ancient vial is believed to contain residues of the Holy Anointing Oil but these residues have not been allowed for testing. Another juglet from Israel was discovered in an archeological excavation and purportedly contained residues of the Holy Anointing Oil but as yet results are not conclusive. Muslim excavations on the Temple Mount resulted in the discovery by archaeologists of artifacts from the 10th century (the reigns of King David and King Solomon) as well as from the Hasmonean, Herodian, and the Second Temple period. [39]The base of a juglet used as a container for olive oil was discovered.[40] A cave discovered in Kibbutz, Israel, outside of Jerusalem, is believed by some to be the place used by John the Baptist for baptismal purposes.[41] Around 250,000 pottery shards, remnants believed for ritual use, were discovered in the cave. A stone inside had a small depression which is said to have contained anointing oil for ritual cleansing. In another discovery an ivory pomegranate, believed to be from Solomon’s Temple, bears the inscription; “[Belonging] to the Temple of [Yahweh], consecrated to the priests.” Although the pomegranate itself is admittedly genuine, Professor Yuval Goren of Tel Aviv University believed that the inscription was a forgery because three critical letters adjacent to an ancient break seemed to stop too conveniently before reaching the break. Professor Yitzhak Roman of the Hebrew University examined the artifact under a scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and concluded the inscription was authentic. His examination showed that the three critical letters, contrary to Goren’s finding, did in fact go into the ancient break. This was the same conclusion reached by an examination at the Israeli Museum sponsored by the Biblical Archaeological Society May 3, 2007 ; “The three letters clearly go into the break.” In addition Professor Roman examined the patina of the surviving letters of the inscription and concluded they were genuine. [42] The inscription “Belonging to the Temple of Yahweh, consecrated to the priests” seems to indicate this was an anointing artifact. To date it has not been tested for residue of the Holy Anointing Oil.

The Continuity of the Holy Anointing Oil in the Eastern Churches

The Armenian Church

The Holy Anointing Oil of the Armenian Church is called the Holy Muron. The church holds a special reverence for the continuity factor of the oil. According to tradition, a portion of the Holy Anointing Oil of Exodus 30, which Moses and Aaron had blessed, still remained in Jesus’ time. Jesus Christ blessed this oil and then gave some of it to Thaddeus, who took the holy oil to Armenia and healed King Abkar of a terrible skin disease by anointing him with the holy oil. Saint Thaddeus is said to have buried a bottle of the Holy Anointing Oil in Daron under an evergreen tree. Saint Gregory the Illuminator discovered the hidden treasure and mixed it with muron that he had blessed. It is said that “To this day, whenever a new batch of muron is prepared and blessed, a few drops of the old one go into it, so that the Armenian muron always contains a small amount of the original oil blessed by Moses, Jesus Christ, and Gregory the Illuminator.”[43][44] The Holy Muron is composed of olive oil and forty-eight aromas and flowers. The remaining portion of the previous blessed holy oil is poured into the newly prepared oil during the blessing ceremony and passes the blessing from generation to generation. It is said that this very procedure has been followed for nearly 1700 years. The Catholicos of all Armenians in Etchmiadzin combines a new mixture of Holy Muron in the cauldron every seven years using a portion of the holy muron from the previous blend. This sweet-scented holy oil is stirred with what is said to be the tip of the lance driven through Jesus’ side and a fragment of the true cross.[44a]  This is distributed to all of the Armenian churches throughout the world. Before Christianity, Muron was reserved solely for the enthroning of royalty and for very special events. In later years, it was used with extreme unction and to heal the sick, and to anoint ordained clergy. [45]

The Assyrian Church of the East

It is said by the Assryian Church that the Holy Anointing Oil “was given and handed down to us by our holy fathers Mar Addai and Mar Mari and Mar Tuma.” The Holy Anointing Oil of the Assyrian Church is variously referred to as the Oil of the Holy Horn, the Oil of the Qarna, or the Oil of Unction. This holy oil is an apostolical tradition, believed to have originated from the oil consecrated by the Apostles themselves, and which by succession has been handed down in the Church to this day. [46] The original oil which the disciples blessed began to run low and more oil was added to it. This has allegedly continued to this very day with new oil being added as the oil level lowers. This succession of holy oil is believed to be a continuity of the blessings placed upon the oil from the beginning.

Both the Oil of Unction and the Holy Leaven are referred to as “leaven” although there is no actual leavening agent, so the nomenclature Holy Leaven seems to be a bit misleading. Yohanan bar Abgareh referred to it in 905 as did Shlemon d-Basra in the 13th Century. Yohanan bar Zo’bee in the 14th Century integrated the Holy Oil of unction with baptism and other rites. Isaaq Eshbadhnaya in the 15th Century wrote the Scholion which is a commentary on specific theological topics. It tells us that that John the Baptist gave John the Evangelist a baptismal vessel of water from Christ’s baptism, which was collected by John the Baptist from water dripping from Christ after his baptism in Jordan River. Jesus gave each disciple a “loaf,” at the Last Supper, but the Scholion informs us that to John he gave two with the instructions to eat only one and to save the other. At the crucifixion John collected the water from the Lord’s side in the vessel and the blood he collected on the loaf from the Last Supper. After the descent of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost the disciples took the vessel and mixed it with oil and each took a horn of it. The loaf they ground up and added flour and salt to it. Each took a portion of the holy oil and the holy bread which were distributed in every land by the hand of those who missionized there. [47][48]

The Assyrian Church has two types of holy oils; the one is ordinary olive oil, blessed or not blessed, the other is the oil of the Holy Horn which is believed to have been handed down from the Apostles. The Holy Horn is constantly renewed by the addition of oil blessed by a bishop on Maundy Thursday. While most anyone can by tradition be anointed with the regular oil, the oil of the Holy Horn is restricted for ordination and sanctification purposes.

The Coptic Church

The Holy Anointing oil of the Coptic Church is referred to as the Holy Myron.

The laying of hands for the dwelling of the Holy Spirit is believed to have been a specific rite of the Apostles and their successors the Bishops, and as the regions of mission increased, consequently numbers of Christian believers and converts increased. It was not possible for the Apostles to wander through all the countries and cities to lay hands on all of those baptized, so they established anointment by the Holy Myron as an alternative, it is believed, for the laying on of the hands for the Holy Spirit’s indwelling.

The first who made the Myron were the Apostles who had kept the fragrant oils which were on the body of Jesus Christ during his burial, and they added the spices which were brought by those women who prepared them to anoint Christ, but had discovered he had resurrected. They melted all these spices in pure olive oil, prayed on it in the Upper Room in Zion and made it a Holy Anointing Oil. Today the Coptic Church uses it for ordination, in the Sanctification of Baptismal water, ordination of Churches, and church altars and vessels. They decided that their successors the Bishops, must renew the making of the Myron whenever it is close to diminishing, by incorporating the original oil with the new.

It is said that when St. Mark went to Alexandria, he took with him some of the Holy Myron oil made by the Apostles and that he used it in the Sacrament of Chrism, as well as the Patriarchs who succeeded him. This continued until the era of Athanasius the Apostolic – the 20th Patriarch, who then decided to remake the Myron in Alexandria. Hence, it is reported, he prepared all of the needed perfumes and spices, with pure olive oil, from which God ordered Moses to make the Holy Anointing Oil as specified in the recipe in the thirtieth chapter of the book of Exodus. Then the sanctification of the Holy Myron was fulfilled in Alexandria, and Athanasius was entrusted with the holy oil (leaven), which contained spices which touched the Lord’s body whilst in the tomb, as well as the original oil which had been prepared by the Apostles and brought to Egypt by St. Mark. He distributed the oil to the churches abroad : to the See of Rome, Antioch and Constantinople, together with a document of its authenticity, and all of the patriarchs are said to have rejoiced in receiving it.[49] The Coptic Church informs that he Fathers of the Church and scholars like St. Justin Martyr, Tertullian, St. Hippolytus, Origen, St. Ambrose, and St. Cyril of Jerusalem, spoke about the Holy Myron and how they received its use in anointing by tradition. For example, St. Hippolytus in his Apostolic Tradition, speaks of the holy oil “according to ancient custom” [50] Origen writes about the holy oil “according to the tradition of the church” [51] St. Cyril of Jerusalem goes into further detail in speaking about the grace of the Holy Spirit in the Holy Myron: “this oil is not just any oil after the epiclesis of the Spirit, it becomes charism of Christ and power of the Holy Spirit through the presence of the deity” [52]

The early fathers and scholars mention the use of the Holy Myron, as well as a documentation by Abu l-Barakat Ibn Kabar, a 14th century Coptic priest and scholar, in his book Misbah az-Zulmah fi idah al-khidmah (The Lamp of Darkness in Clarifying the Service). According to his account, the holy apostles took from the spices that were used to anoint the body of our Lord Jesus Christ when he was buried [53], added pure olive oil to it, and prayed over it in Upper Zion, the first church where the Holy Spirit fell in the upper room.

This holy oil was then distributed amongst all of the apostles so that wherever they preached, new converts would be anointed with it as a seal. They also commanded that whenever a new batch of Holy Myron was made, that they add to it the old Holy Myron to keep the first Holy Myron continually with all that would ever be made afterwards.

According to the available resources, the Holy Myron in the Church of Egypt has been made 34 times. [54][55] [56] [57][58]

The Saint Thomas Christians

The general consensus of opinion among scholars is that St. Thomas laid the original foundation for Christianity in India. It is reported that Jewish communities which were already present in India were the contributing factors which enticed Thomas on his missionary journey there. It is said that he brought the Holy Anointing Oil with him and that the St. Thomas Christians still have this oil to this day.[59]

Patriarch Ya`qub, of the Syrian Malabar Narani Church, is fondly remembered for his spiritually uplifting celebration of the liturgy and his humble encouragement to accept the simple way of life. After he consecrated sacred myron in the Mor Gabriel monastery in 1964, holy myron reportedly flowed from the glass container the following day and many people were said to have been healed by it.

keneh-bosem

Ramban, the Septuagint, Nachmanides, Saadya Gaon and Ibn Janach all identify the calamus of the Old Testament as sweet calamus, Acorus calamus.[60] Most biblical authorities and commentators also identify the keneh bosem as the cane balsam [61] of the plant variously referred to as sweet cane, sweet flag, or calamus.

By Dr. Curtis D. Ward

References

1. ^ Exodus 30:29
2. ^ Exodus 30:33
3. ^ Ex. 30:32a
4. ^ Ex.30:32b
5. ^“Exodus 30:23-25 – Passage Lookup – King James Version”. BibleGateway.com. http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%2030:23-25&version=KJV. Retrieved 2010-08-18.
6. ^ Commentary on the Bible, by Adam Clarke
7. ^ Exodus|30:26 30:26
8. ^ A. Corbin, Le Miasme et la jonquille. L’odorat et l’imaginaire social , 18e-19e siecles (Paris 1982)
9. ^ On the Function of the Holy Incense (Exodus XXX 34-8) and the Sacred Anointing Oil (Exodus XXX 22-33) C Houtman – Vetus Testamentum, 1992
10. ^ M.C.A. Korpel, A Rift in the Clouds, Ugaritic and Hebrew Descriptions of the Divine (Munster , 1990), pp. 99,105, 142, 419.
11. ^ The Spiritual Significance of the Qetoret [Incense] in Ancient Jewish Tradition, Rabbi Avraham Sutton
12. ^http://www.escapeallthesethings.com/red-heifer.htm
13. ^ The Red Heifer, The Original Ashes, The Temple Institute
14. ^http://www.templeinstitute.org/red_heifer/original_ashes.htm
15. ^ Pharisees and the Sadducees: Rethinking Their Respective Outlooks on Jewish Law, GR Knight – BYU L. Rev., 1993 – HeinOnline
16. ^ The end of days: fundamentalism and the struggle for the Temple Mount, By Gershom Gorenberg
17. ^ The strange search for the ashes of the Red Heifer DC Browning – The Biblical archaeologist, 1996 – cat.inist.fr
18. ^http://www.chewonthatblog.com/2009/06/02/how-to-make-challah/           and    http://www.thechallahblog.com/2012/08/rustic-sourdough-challah.html
19. ^ Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Commission on Inter-Church Relations and Education Development, Fifth PRO ORIENTE, Non-official Consultation on Dialogue within the Churches of the Syriac Tradition: “Sacraments in the Syriac Tradition — Part II”, 26th February to 1st March 2002; Vienna (Austria),The Sacrament of the Holy Leaven “Malka” and the Holy Oil
20. ^ Shmos 30:31
21. ^http://www.torah.org/learning/ravfrand/5765/kisisa.html
22. ^ Jones,ThD, Professor Vendyl, Researcher 17, March 2004
23. ^http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/Food/text/farm2.html
24. ^http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/116307700/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
25. ^http://74.125.113.132/search?q=cache:RSmJLxuLinoJ:jilleduffy.blogspot.com/2008/12/no-butter-banana-quick-bread-and-cream.html+residue+of+oil+ancient+jug&cd=23&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us
26. ^http://www.atypon-link.com/ASCS/doi/abs/10.2972/hesp.78.2.269?cookieSet=1&journalCode=hesp
27. ^http://gracemagazine.wordpress.com/category/perfume/
28. ^ VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today
29. ^ Copper Scroll Studies, By George J. Brooke, Philip R. Davies
30. ^http://www.bnainoah.net/VJRI/anointingoil.html
31. ^ Jones,ThD, Professor Vendyl, Researcher 17, March 2004
32. ^ The Wonders of Ancient Glass at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, by Yael Israeli, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, 1998
33. ^ Archeology Pty Ltd
34. ^ Israel Today, News About Israel, Ludwig Schneider, 1990
35. ^ The Messianic Seal of the Jerusalem Church, by Bob Fischer and Reuven Schalz, Olim Publications
36. ^ The Messianic Seal of the Jerusalem Church, by Bob Fischer and Reuven Schalz, Olim Publications
37. ^ Evangelical Press News Service, July, 6, 1999
38. ^ The Archaeological Institute of America, A1 A.A>, 2005
39. ^ Shragai, Temple Mount Dirt Uncovers First Temple Artifacts, 19.10.06
40. ^ National Geographic News, Solomon’s Temple Artifacts Found by Muslim Workers, mati Milstein, Tel Aviv, Israel, October, 23, 2007
41. ^ Gibson, Shimon, The Cave of John the Baptist, 2005
42. ^ Leading Israeli Scientist Declares Pomegranate Inscription Authentic, Biblical Archaeological Review, December 16, 2008
43. ^ Abrahamian, Nyree, The blessing of the Muron: Behind the ritual
44. The Armenian Reporter, “The Blessing of the Muron: Behind the ritual,” Nyree Abrahamian, 9/23/2008, ^http://www.reporter.am/go/article/2008-09-23-the-blessing-of-the-muron-behind-the-ritual              44a.—— Los Angeles Times, “Armenian Priests Journey for Jars of Holy Oil,”  Luis Sahagun, 10/11/2008.   http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/11/local/me-beliefs11
45. ^ Armenian Heritage, The Blessing of the Holy Muron
46. ^ Catholic ecycl
47. ^ MacLean & Browne, The Catholicos of the East and his People, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1892. pages 247 & 248.
48. ^ Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East , Commission on Inter-Church Relations and Education Development , Fifth PRO ORIENTE Non-official Consultation on Dialogue within the Churches of the Syriac Tradition: “Sacraments in the Syriac Tradition — Part II”, 26th February to 1st March 2002; Vienna (Austria), The Sacrament of the Holy Leaven “Malka” and the Holy Oil
49. ^http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/thecopticchurch/sacraments/2_confirmation.html
50. ^ quoted in Berardino, Encyclopedia of the Early Church, v. 1, p. 190
51. ^ in Rom. Comm. V, 8; quoted in Berardino, ibid.
52. ^ Cat. 21, 3; quoted in Berardino, ibid.
53. ^ cf. John 19:38-40
54. ^http://www.suscopts.org/resources/literature/539/the-holy-myron/
55. ^ Burmester, O.H.E., The Egyptian or Coptic Church, A Detailed Description of Her Liturgical Services and the Rites and Ceremonies Observed in the Administration of Her Sacraments, Cairo, 1967
56. ^ Abu l-Barakat Ibn Kabar, Misbah az-Zulmah fi idah al-khidmah, Cairo, 1971
57. ^ Berardino, Angelo di, Encyclopedia of the Early Church, translated by Walford, A. Cambridge 1992
58. ^ Sawirus ibn al-Muqaffa, Tartib al-kahanut, manuscript.
59. ^http://malankaraorthodoxchurch.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=39&Itemid=223
60. ^“Ki Tisa”. Bible.ort.org. http://bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displayid&id=2403. Retrieved 2010-08-18.
61. ^“Exodus 30:23 Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels”. Scripturetext.com. http://scripturetext.com/exodus/30-23.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-18.

WARNING: The Holy Anointing oil should be used ON CHRISTIANS ONLY. According to Exodus 30 the Holy Anointing Oil is not to be used on the common person, but it was only to be used on God’s chosen people, specifically the priestly lineage. In the New Testament it speaks of God’s Church saying, “But ye are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, an holy nation, a peculiar people; that ye should shew forth the praises of him who hath called you out of darkness into his marvellous light.” I Peter 2:9. As a royal priesthood and as a holy nation, Christians may be anointed by the Holy Anointing Oil. It is Biblically  prohibited to be used on or by the unregenerated.

Holy Anointing Oil made by a Rabbi of Cohanim descent (lineage of Aaron and Moses) may be purchased here:  http://www.messianica.org/Oil.htm

HISTORY OF THE TEMPLE MOUNT

HISTORY OF THE TEMPLE MOUNT

 It is believed by both Jews and Muslims that the first of all God’s magnificent creation was the Foundation Stone. This massive rock today is embedded beneath the Temple Mount located in present day Jerusalem. It is further believed that all of earth was created from this one stone and that the first sacrifice of all time was made upon it.

 The Temple Mount is unarguably the most sacred, the most coveted, and the most valuable piece of real estate on planet earth. Battles have raged, blood has been shed, and martyrs have died over this piece of property which was originally blessed by the Lord as the meeting place between God and man. It was here that God Almighty descended in the form of Shekinah fire and spoke directly to mankind. The Foundation Stone, which sets upon the Mount, is said to be the place where the Ark of the Covenant once sat and the very spot where Elohim himself appeared once a year on the Day of Atonement.

 In reality the Temple Mount is simply a walled off section of the larger Mount Moriah located in present day Jerusalem. The Foundation Stone is actually a large mass of bedrock running the entire length of Mount Moriah (from the city of David to Gordon’s Mount Calvary) and outcrops in two different places on top of the Mount (under the Dome of the Rock and under the Dome of Tablets). It was on the Temple Mount where the first two Jewish Temples were built and where the third temple is anticipated being built.

 Let us now review persons and times in history which were most significant to the Temple Mount.

 MELCHISEDEK

 The ancient King-Priest Melchizedek was called “King of Salem” which, as we will discover below, is an old word for Jerusalem. Although the Mount itself is not specifically mentioned during this period, we find that, even at this very early date, “Salem” was a meeting place between man and the Most High God.

 ABRAHAM

 God spoke to the patriarch Abraham instructing him to take his only son Isaac upon Mount Moriah where he was to take his life through a sacrificial offering. It is believed that Isaac was laid upon the Foundation Stone which served Abraham as an alter to the Most High. As Abraham prepared to sacrifice the fruit of his loins an angel of the Lord suddenly appeared and stopped him. The angelic being informed him that this was but a test and God had prepared himself a sacrifice. Abraham then turned to see a ram whose horns were caught in the thickets. This drama unfolded upon Mount Moriah which we today refer to as the Temple Mount.

 JACOB

 Abraham’s grandson, the patriarch Jacob, was traveling and one day and came upon a certain place where he chose to stay for the night. Taking up one of the stones of the place he put it under his head and lay down to sleep. In a dream of spiritual dimensions he beheld a flight of steps rising from earth, till it reached high Heaven. Upon this ladder God’s angels were ascending and descending. The voice of Almighty God spoke to him from Heaven saying,”I am the Lord, the God of Abraham your father and the God of Isaac; the land on which you lie I will give to you and to your descendants.”

 When Jacob awoke from his sleep he exclaimed, “Surely the Lord is in this place; and I did not know it.” He was afraid, and said, “This is none other than the house of God, and this is the gate of heaven.” Gen 28:19. Jacob then anoints the stone on which his slept and called the place “Bethel” which means “The House of God.”
The place at which Jacob stopped for the night was in reality Mount Moriah, the future home of the Temple in Jerusalem (Jacob called Jerusalem Bethel – Pesahim 88a). He named the place “Bethel or House of God intuitively anticipating the future Temple that would be built upon that very place. One prophet wrote “come let us go to the mountain of God to the house of Jacob.” Isa.2:4. Many believe the ladder signified the “bridge” between Heaven and earth, as prayers and sacrifices offered in the Holy Temple soldered a connection between God and the Jewish people. The stone on which he slept is believed to have been carried by Moses through the wilderness and placed again later in Solomons Temple where the King was coronated beside of it. Today there exists in Westminster Abby a stone encased in a royal throne which is believed to be the very stone anointed by Jacob. Upon this stone every English sovereign, from King Edward I to Victoria, has been coronated and crowned.

MOSES

The charismatic Moses led the children of Israel for forty years through the treacherous wilderness. God had instructed Moses to build a tabernacle out of skins and acacia wood. Within the Tabernacle was a esoteric room of great sanctity called the Holy of Holies. The great Ark of the Covenant was the only furnishing adorning this cubicle. Once a year on the day of atonement God himself would descend in a flame of shekinah fire and set upon the mercy seat of the Ark. There God himself would commune and speak with man.

The Tabernacle was in actuality a moving “portable temple.” When the children of Israel broke camp to journey forward, they would fold up the Tabernacle and carry it with them. Arriving at the next place of encampment they would unpack the Tabernacle, set it back up, and once again sacrifices were made and the Most High communed with man. It is believed that the rock from Mount Moriah was carried with them throughout their sojourn through the wilderness (not the large Foundation Stone of course, but a loose rock that Jacob found lying near or on the Foundation Stone and used for his pillow). They were to carry this rock and the Tabernacle for forty years until the children of Israel would at last enter into the land of promise and ultimately rediscover Mount Moriah.

DAVID

Mount Moriah was located in a city called Urusalim, a word probably of Semitic origin that apparently means ‘Foundation of Shalem’ or ‘Foundation of God’. The town was inhabited by a mixed population known as Jebusites. About 1000 BC, Urusalim was captured by David and was renamed Jerusalem. Scriptures tell us that King David purchased a threshing floor owned by Aravnah the Jebusite (2 Samuel, 24:18-25) overlooking Jerusalem with the intention of erecting an altar. He wanted to construct a permanent temple there, but as his hands were “bloodied” from war, he was forbidden to do so himself. The Tabernacle, the portable sanctuary carried through the wilderness, was erected upon this spot but the Temple itself was not built until c. 950 BC by David’s son Solomon.

SOLOMON

Solomon built upon the Temple Mount the most beautiful edifice that has ever adorned planet earth. It was a temple par excellent. The lavish beauty of it’s detail and symmetry, the opulence of it furnishings, and the holiness that permeated the atmosphere surrounding it, was a grandeur the likes of which may never again be recreated in our world. The Kings of the earth marveled at its beauty and nations were blinded by its majesty. It was a shining gem among kingdoms of darkness. It was floored and wainscoted with the wood from the mighty cedars of Lebanon. It’s floors and walls were overlaid with gold. Two cherubim of olive-wood , each more than fifteen feet tall were set within it. Their outspread wings measured fifteen feet from tip to tip, so that, since they were standing side by side, the wings would touch the wall on either side and meet in the middle of the room. A two-leaved door overlaid with gold stood between this area and the holy place; also a veil of heavenly blue, royal purple, crimson red, and fine linen. In the Holy of Holies sat the Ark of the Covenant adorned with cheribims and a mercy seat of pure gold. Inside the Ark was the tablets of stone which God himself had written upon with his own divine finger. The Ark also contained the manna which miraculously fell from Heaven, and the rod of Aaron which had miraculously blossomed. Scripture tells us that when Solomon had finished praying, holy fire descended from heaven and consumed the burnt offering and the sacrifices. Solomon looked on with a holy awe and reverence as God manifested his majesty and the glory of the LORD filled the temple II Chron 7:1. The priests ministered and worshiped before the Lord as the glory rose in the temple. This glory of the Divine King of all Kings fell in the Temple upon Mount Moriah which today we refer to as the Temple Mount and the great Ark of the Covenant sat upon the Foundation Stone which ran the length of the mount.

EZRA

After standing for 410 years, the First Temple in all its splendor and glory was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians in 586 BC.

Reconstruction of the Temple began after the exile to Babylonia. The Hebrew people had been in exile for more than seventy years. Upon return to their homeland they had no idea where the exact spot was where the Temple stood on the Mount. Three prophets came and chose the spot where they believed it had stood. New foundations had to be laid for the new temple.

The rebuilding of the Temple began under Cyrus when the Persians first took over the Babylonian empire, and was then interrupted for 18 years. It resumed with blessing of Darius II, the Persian king whom it is believe was the son of Esther. Honor is given to Ezra for the rebuilding of the Temple, the spiritual rebuilding of the Jewish people and his efforts to reinstate Torah law in the land. A scribe, scholar and a Hebrew community leader in Persia, Ezra, a cohen (descendant of Aaron and Moses), took with him 1,496 well-chosen men with leadership abilities. Ezra’s impact upon the Hebrew nation is so dramatic that in the Talmud it is written of him that “the Torah could have been given to Israel through Ezra, if not that Moses preceded him” (Sanhedrin 21b).

However, the new temple was but a faint image of the splendor of the former temple of old and the people wept.

HEROD THE GREAT

King Herod the Great completely renovated the Temple Mount creating a massive expansion of the Temple Mount platform and a major expansion of the Temple around 19 BC. Mount Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. Herod had planned for the entire mountain to be developed into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet deep by 9 stories high with walls up to 16 feet deep, however it was never finished according to this original plan. As it turned out the Platform and the Temple was still greatly expanded and was a grand architectural achievement of the day.

It was in this temple (which we refer to as the second temple, that Jesus had taught many times including the episode when he was twelve years old. At the beginning of his ministry he read from the book of Isaiah upon this spot. It was here that he ran out the money changers and it was this same temple that he prophesied would be destroyed and that not one stone would be left sitting upon another. This foreboding prophesy was destined to be fulfilled in just a very few short decades

It was in 70 AD that the Jewish people experienced one of the most tragic events in their history. Just 40 years after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ the Roman army burned down Herod’s Temple in Jerusalem. It was a stunning loss. This event took place on the 10th day of Loos (August 29^th), the exact same day the Babylonians had burned down Solomon’s temple 657 years earlier. The Jewish people were dispersed throughout the world without a country or king. However, one of the most amazing notes in history is the fact that throughout almost two thousand years of dispersion they never lost their identity, religion, or language.

CHRISTIAN OCCUPATION OF THE MOUNT

Around 325 AD Saint Helena, mother of the emperor Constantine, built the Church of St. Cyrus and Saint John on the Mount. This structure was later enlarged and named the Church of Holy Wisdom (the church was later destroyed and the Dome of the Rock was built upon its ruins).

In 363 AD, Emperor Julian II ordered the Jewish Temple to be rebuilt. An ancient historian writes of this attempt:

“Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to Alypius of Antioch. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province; when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt.”

Was the failure to rebuild the temple due to the Galilee earthquake of 363 AD? If so, the timing was extraordinarily eerie.

DOME OF THE ROCK

After the Muslim conquest of this region, they renamed the Temple Mount as the AL-Haram AL-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary).

The Muslims revered the Mount as the place of longstanding worship of God by the Jewish prophets as well as the site of the Prophet Muhammad’s night journey to heaven. They soon began to regard the Temple Mount as the third most important holy site, after Mecca and Medina.

In 690 CE, after the Islamic conquest of Palestine, an octagonal shrine (not a mosque) was built around one of the outcroppings of the Foundation Stone, which became known as the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat as-Sakhra). The Dome of the Rock was built from the remains of local Christian Churches as well as the remains of the Church of Holy Wisdom which had set upon this same exact spot. Some believed material in the new structure also included some of the remains of the old Jewish Temple. It was built by Jews, Byzantine Christians, and Muslim workers under the leadership of Abd el-Malik. It was built not as a mosque for public worship but rather a mashhad, a shrine for pilgrims.

Building the Dome of the Rock provided at least four strategic purposes for Abd el-Malik :

1. It temporarily satisfied and won the moral support of Jewish residents (who wished for the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple) by providing them a place of prayer and worship.
2. It brought unity to Jerusalem by providing a structure that could also be used as a place of pilgrimage by the Jews, Christians, and Muslims alike.
3. It redirected his Muslim residents away from pilgrimaging to Mecca which was in the province of his enemies.
4. It provided a structure meant to rival the over-dominating Christian structures in Jerusalem.

The Dome of the Rock is not, and has never been, a Mosque or a place for Islam but, as mentioned above, it was built as a mashhad, a shrine for pilgrims.

In 715 AD the Al-Aqsa Mosque was built on the far southern end of the Temple Mount where the ancient chanuyot (storage house for the priests) once sat. When the Temple was destroyed in 70 AD the chanuyot were destroyed along with the Temple. Yet unlike the Temple, which was destroyed completely, a significant portion of the chanuyot survived the destructing forces. The current mosque includes rows of ancient Corinthian columns which clearly predate the Islamic architecture. Evidence also exists that a Byzantine church once sat on this spot. The mosque has been destroyed several times in earthquakes; the current version dates from the first half of the 11th century.

CHRISTIAN ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS TEMPLAR

The Poor Knights of the Temple of King Solomon, which later became abbreviated to “Knights Templar,” was a Christian religious order which occupied the Temple Mount for many years. Their history occupies about two centuries during the time of the Middle Ages. They rose from humble beginnings to become the wealthiest of all the Christian orders. They eventually garnered the favor of the Church and the collective European monarchs. It was the Knights Templar who invented the banking system used by all of the civilized world today. They believed it was their duty to protect the Temple Mount and all of Jerusalem from non-Christian invaders. After many victories they, in the end, lost the Temple Mount to the Muslims and in 1312 were disbanded due to a plot devised by King Phillip. Deeply in debt King Phillip IV of France plotted to get the riches of the Knights Templar for himself. Templar members were arrested, tortured into giving false confessions, and then burned at the stake. Any remaining Templars merged with the Order of Hospitallers. Templar Jacques De Molay recanted the false confessions that he and other Templars had been previously tortured into giving. As Molay was burning at the stake he spoke forth a prophecy proclaiming that King Phillip and Pope Clement would account for their actions before God’s court within the year. It is a chilling record of history that within one month Pope Clement was dead. By the end of the year King Phillip had died.

MUSLIM OCCUPATION OF THE MOUNT

From the time of the Templar crusaders to the present twenty first century the Temple Mount has remained under Muslim occupation.

In 1948 Israel once again became a nation. The Temple Mount and all of east Jerusalem was captured by the Israelis during the six day war of 1967. The Chief Rabbi of Defense Forces led Israeli soldiers in religious celebrations on the Mount. More than 200,000 Jews flocked to the Mount and the Western Wall in the very first mass Jewish pilgrimage for the first time in two thousand years. The Israeli flag was hoisted high into the air from the site of the Dome of the Rock. Shofars were blown. Shouts rang out in joyous celebration. General Mordechai Gur shouted, “The Temple Mount is in our hands! I repeat, the Temple Mount is in our hands!”

Then an unexpected turn of events took place. In order to keep peace between the Jews and the Muslims the Israeli government made a decision. To the dismay of the religious Jews of Israel, Defense Minister Moshe Dayan handed the custodial keys of the Temple Mount to the Muslim Waqf. Although today Israel has sovereignty over the Mount the Waqf are the custodians of the site, empowered to decide who is permitted entry and who is forbidden.

WHY THIS IS THE FIRST TIME IN HISTORY THAT THE TEMPLE COULD BE REBUILT

                                                   (Article to be continued)

By Dr. Curtis Ward, DD, MHC     History of the Temple Mount

____________________________________________________________

The following are some very interesting and excellent sites to check out:

http://www.templemount.org/

http://www.templemount.org/theories.html

http://www.templeinstitute.org/main.htm

http://www.triumphpro.com/dome-of-rock-riddle.pdf

http://www.bibleplaces.com/templemount.htm

Temple Mount, Ark of the covenant, Bible, Word of God, Dr. Curtis Ward, “Dr. Curtis Ward”, Dr. Curtis D. Ward, Deeper Life Church, Curtis Ward Ministries, Global outreach

SEMIKHAH ( aka Semicha )

Semikhah(Hebrew: סמיכה‎, “leaning [of the hands]“), also semichut (Hebrew: סמיכות‎, “ordination”) is derived from a Hebrew word which means to “rely on” or “to be authorized”. It generally refers to the ordination of a rabbi within Judaism, but can also apply to Christian groups who have preserved the lines of Semikhah. In the Jewish sense it is the “transmission” of rabbinic authority to give advice or judgment in Jewish law. In Judeo-Christian groups it is the simple transmission of ordination.  

According to the Hebrew Bible, Moses ordained Joshua through semikhah. (Num.  27:15-23, Deut. 34:9). Moses also ordained the 70 elders (Num. 11:16-25). The elders later ordained their successors in this way. Their successors in turn ordained others. This chain of hands-on semikhah continued through the time of the Second Temple, survived the persecutions prior to the twelve century, and is said to remain intact in the twenty first century.

According to tradition a chain of unbroken Semikhah was passed down from Enoch down to Jethro and from Jethro to Moses. 

Traditionally Moses is also assumed to be the “first rabbi” of the Children of Israel. He is still known to most Jews as Moshe Rabbeinu (“Moses our Teacher”). Moses was also a prophet and is considered to be the greatest of all the Hebrew Bible’s prophets. Moses passed his leadership on to Joshua as commanded by God in the Book of Numbers where the subject of semikhah (“laying [of hands]” or “ordination”) is first mentioned in the Torah:

• Book of Numbers: “Moses spoke to God, saying, ‘Let the Omnipotent God of all living souls appoint a man over the community. Let him come and go before them, and let him bring them forth and lead them. Let God’s community not be like sheep that have no shepherd.’ God said to Moses, ‘Take Joshua son of Nun, a man of spirit, and lay your hands on him’. Have him stand before Eleazar the priest and before the entire community, and let them see you commission him. Invest him with some of your splendor so that the entire Israelite community will obey him. Let him stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall seek the decision of the Urim before God on his behalf. By this word, along with all the Israelites and the entire community shall he come and go.’ Moses did as God had ordered him. He took Joshua and had him stand before Eleazar the priest and before the entire community. He then laid his hands on him and commissioned him as God had commanded Moses.” (Num  27:15-23) *Book of Deuteronomy: “Joshua son of Nun was filled with a spirit of wisdom, because Moses had laid his hands on him. The Israelites therefore listened to him, doing as God had commanded Moses.” (Deuteronomy 34:9)

Classical semikhah was granted by a court of three judges (Mishnah Sanhedrin 2a), and it later required the participation of at least one who had attained this status, himself. According to Rambam (hil. Sanherin 4:3) the other two did need not be semukhim. Semikhah represents an unbroken chain of authority and an unbroken line of ordination dating back to the time of Moshe (Moses) and Yehoshua (Joshua). It is believed that God taught the Torah to Moshe Rabbeinu on Mt. Sinai in 1312 BCE and that since that time, the knowledge of Torah has been passed from generation to generation by the conferment of semikhah, rabbinic ordination, and the unbroken transmission of authority dating back to the time of Moshe (Moses). This unbroken chain is believed by many to have continued for over 3,300 years and continues to this day.

Classical semikhah refers to a specific type of ordination that, according to traditional Jewish teaching, traces a line of authority back to Moses and the seventy elders. The line of classical semikhah was formerly thought to have died out in the fourth or fifth century CE. However evidence exists that classical semicha was existent during the 12th century when semuchim from Lebanon and Syria were traveling to Israel in order to pass on semikhah to their students. In the mid-12th century there were 10 yeshivot in Baghdad, which had the largest concentration of Jews. There is evidence that lines of unbroken Semikhah have survived intact into the twenty first century. Many Orthodox Jews, however, do not accept these lines believing them to have been contaminated with semikhah being handed down through Jews who were Christian converts.

A LOST TRIBE OF ISRAEL: THE LEMBA

Rav Yisroel of Shklov (1770-1839), believed that classical Semikhah continued outside of the land of Israel, specifically in Yemen.

Modern day research discoveries reveal Rav Yisroel may have been in the right area at the wrong time. Dr. Tudar Parfitt discovered evidence that a group of Jewish people left Israel 2,500 years ago settling in Yemen and populating a city their oral tradition remembered as Senna. Unfavorable conditions forced them to travel onward ultimately settling around the area of Zimbabwe. They began to assimilate with the surrounding gene pool. They passed down from generation to generation the tradition that they were Jewish and had an unbroken ordination succession (both Cohanim and some non-Cohanim Lemba claim Semikhah). Magdel le Roux quotes a Lemba saying, “The succession is just from our forefathers right up to this generation.” For many years scientists laughed at this group of black people who called themselves Jewish.

Skepticism gave way to research when the Lemba were tested and found to share the same genes as Jewish people in Israel as well as having the Y chromosomal genetic markers, known as the Cohen Modal Haplotype.

In Jewish populations in general the frequency rate for these genes is 3 to 5 percent. When they tested the priestly tribe of Lemba they were astonished to discover they had 53 percent! They had unique genetic markers found only in the Jewish communities.

Dr. Tudar Parfitt says “It turned out what they are saying about themselves is substantially correct.” Geneticist Trevor Jenkins said the tests turned out to “prove consistent with Lemba oral history.” Science had conclusively proven the Lemba carried the Priestly genes dating back to the time of Aaron and Moses just as they had always proclaimed.

Many of their other historical traditions have turned out to be true. The unknown city that the Lemba claimed they journeyed from was discovered (“Journey to the Vanished City”, Dr. Tudor Parfitt). An artifact they claimed they possessed and lost hundreds of years ago was discovered in a an ancient cave. Dr. Mathiva said, “Old maps of the Holy Land have now revealed that there was a place called Lemba way back BCE.” She further stated that the Jewish community was left with a moral dilemma as to their responsibility and future obligations to the Lemba and concluded saying, “Now that we know, can we continue to pretend they do not exist?”

Dr. Rudo Mathiva stated, “We, the Jewish community are guilty–guilty because we never accepted what the Lemba had always maintained…until [the] genetic proof recently; that their story was a part of ours. We are guilty because we rejected them.

Many now believe that if their oral tradition was indeed accurate concerning their origins, there is also merit for their claim of possessing an unbroken chain of Semikhah.

HABBANI JEWS OF YEMEN

There are other communities making claims, some with DNA tests backing their claims, of descent from the lost tribes and keeping Torah the whole time: Jews of Kurdistan, gruzia, mountain Jews, and most notably : the Habbani Jews from Yemen as well as other Yemenite Jewish tribes.

MESSIANIC NASARINI ’S

Another group with claims of being one of the Ten Lost Tribes, the Nasarini’s of Malabar and Kerela, are said to indeed be of Hebrew heritage . (Ref. Dr. Asahel Grants’ ‘The Nestorians or the Lost Tribes of Israel’ ). Variously known as known as Nasranies, Nestorians, Jacobites, or Saint Thomas Christians, they follow a Hebrew-Syriac Christian tradition saturated with many Jewish elements. They are some of the earliest people who joined Christianity in India and also with many Malabar Jews from the pre-Christian Diaspora as well as the post Christian Diaspora (40 AD to the fourth century). The Saint Thomas Nasarani’s themselves have a consistent tradition that their church was founded by the very early original Nazarene Church, most specifically by Saint Thomas. Many Pharisee’s also converted to Christianity and joined the early Nazarene Church.

REMNANT IN EUROPE

It is claimed that Semikhah survived intact in a remnant of Jewish people in Europe. A small group of Messianic Jews as well as independent orthodox groups claim to have received preserved Semikhah from this and other lines.

ISRAELI AND AMERICAN JEWISH COMMUNITIES

There are Jewish and Christian Messianic groups in Israel and in the United States that claim an unbroken Chain of Semikhah.

TEACHER/STUDENT TRANSMISSION

In areas and times when persecution prohibited the existence of ordained Rabbi’s the father automatically became Rabbi of the home and passed his rabbinical blessing to his son (or children)until such time the classical form of Semikhah was able to be resumed (Rabbi simply means “teacher”).

THE SEAT OF MOSES

The seat of Moses was not merely “where the person [man actually] sat and read from the Torah.”

In fact, the phrase “chair of Moses” is an essential element of the “semikhah”–which was the only form of authority that existed among the judges, elders, scribes, and rabbisduring Jesus’ time. 

John the Baptist was son of a Temple Priest and had the respect of the more radical Jews of the day. He would not have had this respect had he not been given Semikhah.   

Jesus Christ was referred to as “Rabbi” and “teacher” and was listened to by Jewish multitudes. These things would not have occurred if Christ had not fulfilled the Jewish need for Semikhah. The same applies to the disciples. 

Apostle Paul obviously had Semikhah since he studied under Gamaliel and was a Jewish leader of the highest order.  

WHY CHRISTIANS ARE CONCERNED WITH SEMIKHAH

Semikhah is essential in the rebuilding of the third Temple, the restoration of the Jewish priesthood, and the restoration of the Sanhedrin. Without Semikhah the Temple cannot be rebuilt. Many Christians feel that Biblical prophecy teaches that the rebuilding of the third Temple in Jerusalem is one of the prophetic factors indicating the return of Jesus Christ and end time revival among the Jewish people.

In Search of the Unbroken Chain of Semicha

One of the most intriguing stories ever told is that of the ancient chain of Semicha.

Today it is almost universally accepted among the liberal Jewish community that the chain of Semicha was broken around the fifth century AD and was forever lost. Recent research, however, has uncovered some very remarkable sources of possible intact Semicha.

Semicha is the rabbinical ordination classically transmitted by the laying on of hands. Moses ordained Joshua and the seventy elders through this authority (Num 27:15-23, Num 11: 16-25, Deut. 34: 9). Their successors in turn ordained others. This hands on transmission continued until around the fifth century at which time it is believed to have ceased to exist.

But G-d said Semicha was unto all generations forever. Is G-d not capable of preserving the gift He so graciously bestowed upon his people. Without Semicha there is no succession of the Sanhedrin nor a priesthood. Without the priesthood there is no building of the Temple. Without the Temple to where will Messiah come ? (Rambam said, “If there is one with uninterrupted semicha, you do not require everyone’s agreement”). Jewish people today believe in the absolute transmission of Torah and Mesorah from Rabbineau Moshe to the present day but believe Semicha ceased centuries ago. But if Hashem preserved the Torah why could He not also preserve Semicha? There are at least seven sources of possible Semicha to consider: (1) A Lost Tribe of Israel (Lemba’s) (2) Isaac Ben Luria and Baal Shim Tov (3) Habbani Jews of Yemen (4) Messianic Nasarini’s (5) Remnant in Europe (6) American Jewish community (7) Teacher/student transmission. Today I will give more space to sources one and seven beginning with the first source. (1) A LOST TRIBE OF ISRAEL: THE LEMBA

” I would like to mention that we, the Jewish community are guilty–guilty because we never accepted what the Lemba had always maintained…until [the] genetic proof recently ; that their story was a part of ours. We are guilty because we rejected them. ” (Dr. Rudo Mathiva).

Approximately 2,500 years ago, a group of Jews left Judah settling in Yemen populating a city called Senna. Unfavorable conditions compelled them to journey many miles until settling in and around Zimbabwe. Similar to other Jews during the Diaspora they assimilated local customs and genes from the local gene pool. For centuries these people passed down their tradition to their children and adamantly claimed they were Jewish. Unlike the locals they believed in one God, Shabbot, Kosher dietary laws, circumcision, the lunar calendar, Torah, and many other Jewish customs. They not only claimed to be Jewish and of the Cohanim but they also boasted an unbroken Semicha (both Cohanim and non-Cohanim Lemba claim Semicha). Academia laughed at these black people proclaiming to be Jews. They were in a delusion…or were they they? In 1997 critical research data indicated that a large proportion of contemporary Jewish Cohanim (those claiming ancestry from the priestly line of Aaron the High Priest) share a set of Y chromosomal genetic markers, known as the Cohen Modal Haplotype, which has been oftlinedetermined to have derived from a single common ancestor dating back to the very time in which the Torah recorded Aaron existed. Scientific calculations which were based on the high rate of genetic similarity of today’s Cohanim resulted in the highest “paternity-certainty” rate that has been ever been recorded in population genetics studies. Scientists found that 45 percent of Ashkenazi priests and 56 percent of Sepharic priests have the cohen genetic signature, while in Jewish populations in general the frequency rate is 3 to 5 percent. When they tested the priestly tribe of Lemba they were astonished to discover they had 53 percent! They had unique genetic markers found only in the Jewish communities. Dr. Tudar Parfitt says “It turned out what they are saying about themselves is substantially correct.” Geneticist Trevor Jenkins said the tests turned out to “prove consistent with Lemba oral history.” Science had conclusively proven the Lemba carried the Priestly genes dating back to the time of Aaron and Moses just as they had always proclaimed.

Numerous other historical traditions they proclaimed turned out to be true. The unknown city that the Lemba claimed they journeyed from was discovered (“Journey to the Vanished City”, Dr. Tudor Parfitt). An artifact they claimed they possessed and lost hundreds of years ago was discovered in a an ancient cave. Dr. Mathiva said, “Old maps of the Holy Land have now revealed that there was a place called Lemba way back BCE.” She further stated that the Jewish community was left with a moral dilemma as to their responsibility and future obligations to the Lemba and concluded saying, “Now that we know, can we continue to pretend they do not exist?”

We have an even GREATER dilemma. If their claims of Jewish origin, Cohanim decent , names of lost cities, etc. proved to be true….what about their claim to possess an unbroken line of Semicha!!! They have persistently claimed an unbroken succession of ordination …the Semicha.

Please keep in mind Semicha has alledgedly been conferred on clans of Lemba that were Cohanim as well as those that were not but were nevertheless considered Jewish. Those recieving Semicha are considered Priests although most are born into into the Priesthood as well as recieving Semicha.
Magdel le Roux says the Lemba still has the priesthood to this very day and the priest traditionally passes his teaching and priesthood on to his son in perpetual succession. He reports the priest said to him: “The succession is just from our forefathers right up to this generation and it will just continue like that. You see there is just a house of priesthood like in the Old Testament and this priesthood is not something of imposition of something you do to yourself. It was something bestowed to a particular house by G-d.” (D:A:4; italics mine).Would such a Semicha be halackally acceptable? It may be time for us to reconsider what is halackally acceptable transmission of Semicha when faced with dispersion and hardship. Even Elijah when in exile accepted food from non-kosher unclean birds until such a time he could resume a normal kosher life. Rabbi Yisroel Shklover said a dispersed group distant from the rest of Klal Yisroel before certain halachic Rabbinical rules were declared would be exempt from those rules not having accepted nor heard them.

One thing is for certain…the Lemba and their claims of Semicha are here…and they are not going to just “go away.”

(2) ISAAC BIN LURIA and BAAL SHIM TOV

Isaac Bin Luria (ARI) was a mystic whom many felt was a holy man with divine favor. He claimed the prophet Elijah, who had been his godfather in his babyhood, paid him frequent visits, initiating him into sublime truths. Rabbi Chayim Vital said the ARI increased his piety, asceticism, purity and holiness until he reached a level where Eliyahu HaNavie (Elijah the prophet) would constantly reveal himself to him, speaking to him “mouth to mouth,” teaching him these mysteries. ” According to scripture Elijah was one of two men who had never tasted death. This would not have been a “phantom” but the real Elijah. If this is true then there would be no doubt Semicha continued because the ARI’s line is still presently extent. It has been recorded that Baal Shim Tov received Semicha from Elijah and it was referred to as “Heavenly Semicha” and , of course, his line of Semicha is still with us today. However this is impossible to verify and smacks a bit as being Quixotic but is still an avenue for the mystically minded to explore.

(3) HABBANI JEWS OF YEMEN

There are other communities making claims, some with DNA tests backing their claims, of descent from the lost tribes and keeping Torah the whole time: Jews of kurdistan, gruzia, mountain Jews, and most notably : the Habbani Jews from Yemen as well as other Yemenite Jewish tribes.

It has also been said that they do not necessarily have to even know it as “smicha” because any permission to judge dinei knasot or nefashot would be sufficient. However some of them do claim classical Semicha.

(4) MESSIANIC NASARINI ’S

Another group with claims of being one of the Ten Lost Tribes, the Nasarini’s of Malabar and Kerela, are said to indeed be of Hebrew heritage . (Ref. Dr. Asahel Grants’ ‘The Nestorians or the Lost Tribes of Israel’ ). Variously known as known as Nasranies, Nestorians, Jacobites, or Saint Thomas Christians, they follow a Hebrew-Syriac Christian tradition saturated with many Jewish elements. They are some of the earliest people who joined Christianity in India and also with many Malabar Jews from the pre-Christian Diaspora as well as the post Christian Diaspora (40 AD to the fourth century after which it is claimed Semicha ceased). The Saint Thomas Nasarani ‘s themselves have a consistent tradition that their church was founded by the very early original Nazarene Church, most specifically by Saint Thomas. Many Pharisee’s also converted to Christianity and joined the early Nazarene Church.

The Saint Thomas Nasranies can allegedly trace their ordination succession person by person all the way back to the original Church. I have seen these ancient documents and have spoken with Greek Orthodox scholars who insist these Syrian records are are historically accurate. If this be so then, considering those who already had Semicha when becoming part of the Nasarini, this would be another unbroken chain of ordination going back to Moshe.

Although Rabbi Yisroel Shklover said that under certain circumstances certain groups would be exempt from the halachic Rabbinical rules I am aware that no Orthodox Torah observant Jew would consider such a Semicha as being even close to being halachic but it would be a very interesting research for a messianic observant Jew to explore.

(5) REMNANT IN EUROPE

It is claimed that Semicha survived intact in a remnant of Jewish people in Europe. A small group of Messianic Jews as well as independent orthodox groups claim to have received preserved Semicha from this and other lines. Further research is needed before I can accurately publish the details which I can do at a later date.
Also we must not forget there have been many laymen “balebatim” who have semicha and were officially “ordained” but do not practice as rabbis at all.

(6) AMERICAN JEWISH COMMUNITY

I have uncovered several in the United States that claim an unbroken Chain of Semicha . I will elaborate on that in another article.

(7) TEACHER/STUDENT TRANSMISSIONWe must seriously consider the theorem that in times when persecution prohibited the existence of ordained Rabbi’s that the father automatically became Rabbi of the home and passed his rabbinical blessing to his son (or children) until such time the classical form of Semicha was able to be resumed (after all Rabbi does mean “teacher”). Perhaps we need to reconsider what is halackally acceptable transmission of Semicha when faced with insurmountable persecution and threat of death.

It is possible, no PROBABLE, that in time of unavoidable secrecy and threat of death that Hashem accepted the following as transmission of Semicha : Transmission of Torah from teacher to student (or father to son) consisting of Torah teaching, pronunciation of blessing, and the physical embrace and/or kiss. This would have been an acceptable link in the unbroken chain of Semichut until such a time that the classical Semicha could be resumed by Rambam’s suggestion of all the sages of Israel coming together, unanimously ordaining judges, and then resuming classical Semicha. This is the most practical and pragmatic approach . If , as many believe, there was an unbroken chain of transmission of Torah, there by necessity must be a teacher to transmit it and a student to receive it, and this done in perpetual succession.

Consider the precision that the Torah was preserved in and passed on in times of aggressive prohibition. Consider the intricate , detailed, typologies involved in Pesach observance. Consider the multitude of details in Jewish observances accurately handed down from generation to generation of families forbidden to observe such custom even at the threat of death and extinction. Do you…COULD you…imagine for one single moment that some Jewish family or families failed to pass on something as critical as Semicha? The vast interactive, connecting, branching, web of of Jewish culture has spun a geometric weave of cultural preservation in the metropolitans, prison camps, jungles, and villages throughout the far reaches of the earth. To think the anointed, ethereal substance of Semicha came to an end is to strike the very heart of faith as well as the credibility of human potential. Hashem is much wiser then we could ever imagine and what He has established He has the ability to preserve. There are no DNA tests, no historical discoveries, no law in the land, nor religious body that can prove to be as dependable a source of evidence as the way and word of Hashem. He has preserved the Jewish people, their traditions, and the Cohanim in the brutal face of Dispersion, holocausts, prison, and centuries of exile. Hitler could not burn her traditions, Nazi’s could not imprison them, and exile could not silence her voice. Through the stygian darkness of night by the candles of Shabbot precious oral history and religious traditions were secretly passed down from generation to generation as her persecutors stalked her doors firing their brutal ammunition over her weary head. When the smoke of historical debates have cleared and skeptics reluctantly lift their heads from the fox holes…before them standing undaunted will be proof of Hashem’s perpetual Semicha . . . to all generations forever.
“THEIR ANOINTING shall surely be an EVERLASTING priesthood throughout your generations.” (Ex. 40: 15)

By Dr. Curtis D. Ward

What is Stacte?

Stacte

Stacte (Greek: στακτή, staktḗ or Hebrew: נָטָף‎, nataf) is one of the ingredients of the most sacred temple incense, the HaKetoret, discussed in Exodus 30:34. It was to be mixed in equal parts with onycha (labdanum), galbanum and mixed with pure frankincense and made into an incense for burning on the altar of the tabernacle.

This incense was considered restricted for sacred purposes honoring Yahweh; the trivial or profane use of it was punishable by exile, as laid out in Exodus 30:34-38 (KJV)

The Hebrew word nataf means “drop,” corresponding to “drops of water (Job 36:27).” The Septuagint translates nataf as stacte, a Greek word meaning “an oozing substance,” which refers to various viscous liquids, including myrrh. [1] Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel explained, “Stacte is simply the sap that drips from the tapping of the wood of the balsam tree (Kerithot 6a).” Various contenders for stacte include myrrh of the highest grade, the resin of Styrax officinalis, the benzoin resin of Styrax Benzoin (a close relative of and of the same genus as Styrax Officinalis), myrrh and benzoin mixed, storax, the resin of Turkish Sweetgum (Liquidambar orientalis),[2] opobalsamum, labdanum, and the oil of cinnamon.

My research has led me to the conclusion that stacte is indeed myrrh and most probably myrrh and benzoin mixed.

Myrrh

Most all ancient sources refer to Stacte as being myrrh.[3] It is variously described as the transparent parts of the myrrh resin, the myrrh that exudes spontaneously from the tree, or the product of myrrh heated over fire. The ancient Greek botanist Theophrastus describes the manufacturing of stacte: “From the myrrh, when it is bruised flows an oil; it is in fact called “stacte” because it comes in drops slowly.” The ancient Roman historian Pliny in “A Natural History,” describes stacte as, “the liquid which exuded naturally from the myrrh tree before the gum was collected from man-made incisions.” Pancirollus says, myrrh is a drop or tear distilling from a tree in Arabia Felix; and stacte is a drop of myrrh, which is extracted from it, and yields a most precious liquid. [4] Dioscorides wrote that Stacte was made from Myrrh. He recorded that after having bruised the myrrh and dissolved it in oil of balanos over a gentle fire, hot water was poured over it. The myrrh and oil would sink to the bottom like a deposit; and as soon as this has occurred, they strained off the water and squeeze the sediment in a press. [5] [6] Stoddart, who lists myrrh as a balm, informs us that “Myrrh—after the almost clear stacte has passed through—is reddish brown . . . Stacte is the thinnest moiety of myrrh, the very best of which is forced through tiny holes in the intact bark at the start of spring.”[7] Pomet wrote that to obtain stacte one must first gather the myrrh “that flows spontaneously from the tree” and to look for portions of the resin which are “clear and transparent, apt to crumble, light.” He says to choose the myrrh “that when it is broke, has little white spots in it.” We are told that “stacte is that liquid part which is found in the center or middle of the lumps or clots of myrrh.” Pomet also wrote that stacte is that “which is first so gather’d from the tree without force, and also press’d from the myrrh . . . there is prepar’d from it, an extract, an oil or liquor of myrrh.”[8]

The Gerrhaean tribute to Antiochus III in 205 BC included one thousand talents of frankincense and two hundred of “stacte myrrh.”

Cant. I:I reads, “I rose up to open to my beloved; And my hands dropped with myrrh, And my fingers with stacte” referring to myrrh and the stacte which seems to have exuded from it.[9] This would seem to agree with Sauer and Blakely who note that stacte was myrrh oil or liquid myrrh. [10]

Abrahams informs that “With regard to the Tabernacle incense, most scholars agree that the term ‘stacte’ is of Latin and Greek origin, and that stacte represents myrrh.” [11] A. Lucas informs us in no uncertain terms that stacte is indeed a product of the myrrh tree. [12] [13] While some identify commiphora opobalsamum as the myrrh that was used for stacte, Tucker says that “Common myrrh is obtained from Commiphora myrrha ; this is the species from which . . . stacte, was obtained.”[14] [15]

R. Steuer, in his scholarly paper Stacte in Egyptian Antiquity, gives a convincing argument in favor of stacte being the product of the myrrh tree in ancient Egypt. [16] [17]

However, this viscous liquid myrrh would have needed a concrete carrier such as benzoin, which I believe did indeed accompany the myrrh ingredient.

Styrax Benzoin

Dioscordes referred to styrax as “storax” which was the name used of the styrax genus in antiquity (modern storax is usually liquidamber) [18] Styrax benzoin was used by the ancient Egyptians in the art of perfumery and incense. The apothecary of Shemot (book of Exodus) would have been familiar with its aromatic uses. H.J. Abrahams states that the use of benzoin in the Biblical incense is not altogether inconceivable since Syro-Arabian tribes maintained extensive trade routes prior to Hellenism. Styrax benzoin was available via import to the Biblical lands during the Old Testament era.

Herodotus of Halicarnassus in the 5th century BC indicates that different kinds of “storax” were traded.

Most modern authorities identify Styrax officinalis as the biblical styrax, however the yield of resin produced by S. officinalis, if any is produced at all, is extremely small. The large amounts of stacte needed for liturgical purposes, especially in the first temple period, would seem to have necessitated the import of a styrax that could have met the demand. Styrax benzoin yields a much larger yield of resin and could fill this need quite adequately. As mentioned above, Styrax benzoin is a close relative of and of the same genus as Styrax officinalis.

Gamaliel said that stacte was nothing more than the sap that drips from the branches of the balsam tree. Balsam is a term that has been used for a variety of pleasantly scented vegetable gums that usually contain benzoic acid such as is contained in benzoin gum from the balsam tree styrax benzoin. [19]

S. benzoin has a history steeped in antiquity and was once employed as an incense in Egypt. All the compounds identified in benzoin resin were detected in an archaeological organic residue from an Egyptian ceramic censer, thus proving that this resin was used as one of the components of the mixture of organic materials burned as incense in ancient Egypt. [20] An ancient Egyptian perfume formula (1200 BC) consisted of “Storax, Labdanum, Galbanum, Frankincense, Myrrh, Cinnamon, Cassia, Honey, Raisins.”[21] Rosenmeuller records that “the Greeks also called stacte, a species of Storax gum, which Dioscorides describes, as transparent like a tear, and resembling myrrh.”[22]The word ‘Storax’ is an alteration of the Late Latin styrax.   In the Orphic hymns, the Greek word for storax is στόρακας or στόρακα. The book of Ecclesiasticus lists storax as one of the ingredients when alluding to the sacred incense of the biblical tabernacle. [23]

The Hindustanis use Styrax Benzoin to burn in their temples—a circumstance strongly in favor of the hypothesis that the stacte of Exodus was acompanied by a storax.[24]

Myrrh Mixed with Styrax Benzoin

Some writers say that myrrh rarely consisted of one sole resin but was a mixture of resins. One kind of myrrh described by Dioscorides was “like the stacte, a composition of myrrh and some other ingredient . . . “ [25] Dioscordes said that one form of stacte was styrax (storax in antiquity) and a fat mixed. The essential of myrrh is oftentimes referred to as “the fat of fresh myrrh.” [26] The book of Eccesiasticus (Sirach) 24:15 alludes to the sacred incense speaking of “a pleasant odour like the best myrrh, as galbanum, and onyx, and sweet storax, and as the fame of frankincense in the tabernacle.” At the time that this was written either myrrh and styrax were mixed together or styrax was treated with myrrh or by the time of the first temple period a fifth ingredient was added to the ketoret. [27] Styrax was most probably the solid carrier for the liquid myrrh. For centuries, benzoin has been mixed with myrrh, particularly in the Middle East, to scent private homes and places of worship.[28]

There is no doubt that stacte is the finest part of the myrrh resin of the commiphora species and styrax benzoin was most probably the solid carrier for this aromatic resin.

By Curtis Ward

 

(NOTE: To make Stacte I order granulated Yemen myrrh from the following link : http://www.somaluna.com/prod/yemen_myrrh_grade_2.asp?m=20                                                                                                                                 I  then separate all of the transparent, semi-transparent, and white granules of myrrh from the red and brown granules. The transparent, semi-transparent, and the white granules are hard stacte. I moisten this with a little water and heat until liquid. This is stacte. Preferably you would get stacte when it first exudes on it’s own, but unfortunatley we do not have myrrh trees in Ohio .)

 

Footnotes

1. ^ Gill Marks, KI TISA , THE SWEET SMELL OF SUCCESS, SHEMEN HAMISCHA, http://www.gilmarks.com/1215.html
2. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (1911), ISBE (1915), Bible Encyclopedia.net (2007)
3. ^ http://www.making-incense.com/monographs/stacte.htm
4. ^ The New John Gill Exposition of the entire bible
5. ^ Dioscorides, Matria Medica
6. ^ Groom, Nigel, Frankincense and Myrrh: A Study of the Ancient Arabian Incense Trade
7. ^ Stoddart, David Michael, The scented ape: the biology and culture of human odour
8. ^ Pomet, Monfieur, History of Druggs, 1709
9. ^ Theocritean parallels to the Song of Songs by Wm. G. Seiple, John Hopkins University, The American Journal of Semitic Languages.
10. ^ Archaeology Along the Spice Route of Yemen by James A. Sauer and Jeffrey A. Blakely. Araby the blest: studies in Arabian archaeology, By Daniel T. Potts
11. ^ Onycha, Ingredient of the Ancient Jewish Incense: An Attempt at Identification, HJ Abrahams – Economic Botany, 1979
12. ^ Notes on Myrrh and Stacte, A Lucas – The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 1937
13. ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/3854456
14. ^ Frankincense and myrrh, AO Tucker – Economic botany, 1986
15. ^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/1400n1v55r024681/
16. ^ Steuer, Robert O., Stacte in Egyptian Antiquity
17. ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/594360
18. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica 1893:Incense of the Old Testament
19. ^ Willis 1973:677
20. ^ Journal of Chromatography A Volume 1134, Issues 1-2, 17 November 2006, Pages 298-304, Aromatic resin characterisation by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry: Raw and archaeological materials, Francesca Modugnoa, Erika Ribechinia and Maria Perla Colombini, aDipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università di Pisa, via Risorgimento 35-56126 Pisa, Italy
21. ^ Aromatherapy: A Complete Guide to the Healing Art, By Kathi Keville, Mindy Green
22. ^ The Mineralogy and Botany of the Bible, Rosenmeuller , E. F.
23. ^ Ecclesiasticus 24:15
24. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature, Volume 9, By John McClintock, James Strong
25. ^ The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Hutton, Shaw, and Pearson
26. ^ A. Lucas, Notes on Myrrh and Stacte
27. ^ Taylor’s edition of Calmet’s great dictionary of the Holy Bible, By Augustin Calmet, Charles Taylor, Edward Wells
28. ^ http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/
29. ^ Yad, Kley HaMikdash 2:4; cf. Kerithoth 6a; Rashi; Radak, Sherashim; Saadia; Rambam on Kerithoth 1:1
30. ^ http://bible.ort.org/books/Torahd5.asp?action=displayid&id=2414#C1806

Revised April, 22, 2010

What is Onycha?

What is this exotic, elusive ingredient of the Holy Incense which Exodus 30:32 calls onycha?

The battle has raged for centuries with most people identifying onycha as the operculum of a sea snail.

But is that identification correct?

The incense symbolizes the prayers of Gods people. Onycha symbolizes one of the vital components which should be present in prayer. The correct identification of this ingredient affects not only the understanding of the function of the HaKetoret but also of it’s true purpose.

Of the many substances proposed to be the mysterious onycha which one most closely fits the etymology and description of the substance recorded in this most ancient incense recipe?

The article below attempts to answer the age-old question — What is Onycha?

Onycha

Onycha (Greek: ονυξ), along with equal parts of stacte, galbanum, and frankincense, was one of the components of the HaKetoret (holy incense) which appears in the Old Testament in the book of Exodus (Ex.30:34-36) and was used in the temple in Jerusalem. This formula was to be incorporated as a holy incense and was not to be duplicated for non-sacred use.[1] The original Hebrew word used for this component of the ketoret was שחלת, shecheleth, which means “to roar; as a lion (from his characteristic roar)” or “peeling off by concussion of sound.”[2] Shecheleth is related to the Syriac shehelta which is translated as “a tear, distillation, or exudation.”[3] When the Old Testament was translated into Greek (the Septuagint version) the Greek word “onycha” ονυξ, which means “fingernail” or “claw,” was substituted for shecheleth.

Labdanum

Some writers believe that onycha was the fingernail-like operculum, or closing flap, of certain sea snails, however there is some doubt as to whether the onycha of the Old Testament was actually the operculum of a sea snail.[4] H.J. Abrahams says, “The widely held mollusk hypothesis becomes quite perplexing if one considers that the mollusk was counted among the unclean animals in the Bible (Chapters Leviticus 11:9 and 12).”[4] Sea creatures such as the mollusk were an “abomination” and even their carcasses were to be considered an “abomination”[5]and anyone simply touching them became unclean.[6] Rabbeinu Bachyei insisted that only kosher species may be used for the mishkan. The Gemara states that “only items that one may eat may be used for the work of Heaven.”[7] Nachmanides, Torah scholar and famed Jewish theologian, emphasized that the commandment concerning unclean animals pertained also to temple services.[8] James Strong and J. McClintoch write that “it seems improbable that any such substance could have been one of the constituent spices of the most holy perfume; not only because we know of none bearing any powerful and agreeable odor, but specially because all marine creatures that were not finned and scaled fishes were unclean, and as such could not have been touched by the priests or used in the sanctuary.” [9] [10] The High Priest went to great lengths in purifying himself and the Temple before entering the Holy of Holies where he would “put the incense upon the fire before the Lord, that the cloud of incense may cover the mercy seat” (Lev. 16:13). It is doubtful that an unclean ingredient would have been used in an incense meant to cleanseand purify,  as well as to cover the ark of the covenant.  There is also some doubt that a mollusk would have been referred to as a sweet spice.[11] Bahr state that

Onyx stone, white

“the odor of the burned shells is not pleasant.”[12] Although the word onycha has been interpreted as meaning “nail” it is pointed out that nail or claw is actually an extended connotation of onyx, derived from the translucent and sometimes veined appearance of the gemstone onyx which antiquity often describes as a black stone.[13]

Black Onyx

Coincidentally onycha is the Greek word which was chosen to replace the original Hebrew word which was shecheleth.[14] One of the Hebrew words that shecheleth seems to be related to, שחלים, sh’chalim, refers to a large variety of plants.[15] A ancient Ugaritic text lists onycha among types of vegetables, implying that onycha was a vegetable also.[16] The Talmud specifically states that although onycha (shecheleth) is not from a tree, it does grow from the ground and that it is a plant (Kerithoth 6b).[17] Condor writes “Shecheleth, Exod. xxx. 34; [is] rendered by the Septuagint, onycha, and by the Arabic version, ladana . . . The root of the Hebrew word means to drop or distil, and shecheleth would seem, therefore, to mean some exudation.” [18] James Strong writes “the Syriac etymology of the word, namely, to run in drops, exude, distil, would lead to the idea of a resinous and odoriferous substance of the vegetable kingdom.”[19] Another writer says “the context and the etymology seem to require the gum of some aromatic plant, perhaps gum-ladanum. The Hebrew word would seem to mean something that exuded, having odorous qualities.”[20] “Shecheleth” identifies with the Syriac “shehelta” which is translated as “a tear, distillation, or exudation.”

According to Winifred Walker’s All the Plants

Cistus RockRose bush

of the Bible, shecheleth is a form of rock rose, Cistus ladaniferus var. Cistus creticus, which produces a resin called labdanum.[21] This sweet spicy ingredient has been used in perfumes and incense for thousands of years and grows profusely in the Middle East, specifically in Israel and Palestine. The rock rose is a bush, not a tree (The Talmud states that onycha comes from a ground plant and not a tree).[22] Labdanum is the gray-black resin that exudes from the branches of the rock rose bush. Labdanum, after it matures, becomes black and is referred to as black

Labdanum

amber or black balsam.[23] Gill states that the word “shecheleth is certainly related to the Hebrew word shechor (black),” denoting the color of the shecheleth used in the ketoret formula.[24] Onycha is a play on the word onyx which was a gem. The onyx most esteemed by the ancients was the black gem.[25] The Hebrew word for onyx was shoham and “Braun traces shoham to the Arabic sachma,’blackness:’ ‘Of such a

Onyx stone

color,’ says he, ‘are the Arabian [onyxes], which have a black ground-color.’ This agrees essentially with Mr. King’s remarks (Antique Gems, p. 9): ‘The Arabian species,’ he says, ‘were formed of black or blue strata.” [26] The rock rose also has an inseparable identification with rocks because its existence depends upon it’s roots anchoring among them in areas where no other foliage is able to grow. After labdanum became hard it may have been put through another process causing it to emulate even more of the “beautiful”[27] attributes of the onyx or to to refine it, “that it be pleasant.”[28] When used in sacred rites resins were often steeped in wine to, among other things, increase their fragrance.[29] A reference to onycha as an annual plant[30] may be confusion with its annual yield. Rock rose usually produces labdanum annually, during the summer, to protect itself from the heat. A reference to onycha as a root

Cistus root

[31] may be due to the practice of boiling the twigs and roots for labdanum extraction[32] [33][34] or the use of cistus roots as a medicine. The root of the Cistus plant is a Jordanian traditional medicine.[35] The root is still used today by the Arabs for bronchitis and also as a pectorial, demulcent, tonic, and anti-diabetic.[36] Then again the possibility exists that while the onycha of Exodus 30 was labdanum, the identity of onycha may have been lost some time during or after the Babylonian captivity, with the operculum becoming identified as onycha during the time of the second Temple. However, as the original onycha of the book of Exodus, Abrahams says that, more than any other substance, “labdanum fills the bill most convincingly.”[37]

The flowers of the rockrose bush is described as having petals with scarlet and black fingernail-shaped markings, thus its historically acclaimed connection with the Greek ονυξ onyx.[38] Lynne writes, “Onycha . . . is a rockrose which produces a gum that is known as labdanum. The blossoms are about three inches across, white with at the base of each petal a blotch of brilliant scarlet-rose which deepens into black. In Greek onycha means ‘fingernail.’ The blotch of color in each petal looks exactly like a brightly painted red fingernail.”[39] Others proclaim that the very petals of this plant are shaped like finger nails.[40] [41]

Cistus plant (left) with petals said to resemble human fingernails and labdanum, the resin from the plant (right), said to resemble the black onyx stone. The resin is the Biblical onycha.

Pharaoh with Crook & Flabellum

Again, onycha in Greek means “fingernail” or “claw.” Claws were used in ancient Egypt to collect labdanum. Pharaohs were pictured with this claw (a nekhakha) resting on their breasts.[42][43][44] Claws, or rakes, were used to collect the labdanum from the cistus bushes and smaller claws, or combs, were used to collect labdamun from the beards of the wild goats.[45] Removing and peeling the very sticky, adhesive labdanum from these very temperamental animals caused them to cry out, to “peel out by the concussion of sound,” or to “roar” out in protest. As mentioned above the original Hebrew word for onycha was שחלת, shecheleth, which comes from a root meaning “to roar” or “peeling off by concussion of sound.” In Aramaic, the root SHCHL signifies “retrieve.” For thousands of years labdanum has been retrieved from the beards of

ladanesterion

goats and the wool of lambs by this method. The resin was peeled off of the goats beard, lambs wool, and from the lambadistrion. Interestingly the Arabic word for peel is sahala.

The Pharaohs beard was made up of goats hair [46] which was held together and scented by labdanum.[46 a-d]  When the royal kingly Pharaoh spoke it was as the lion’s “roar,” the voice of god to the people. The Pharaoh was called the “incarnation of Atum.” [47] Massy writes that, “The lion was a zootype of Atum . . . He is called the lion-faced in the Ritual . . . He is addressed as a lion god, the god in lion form.” [48]

Pharaoh wearing a lion’s mane and labdanum saturated beard

Pharaohs were often depicted as part human and part lion wearing the false beard saturated with labdanum. This beard was inspired by the lion’s mane and was part of the various sphinx depicting the Pharaohs.[49] A sphinx of Pharaoh Hatsheput displays a lion’s mane and the pharaoh’s manufactured beard.[50] Strong defines the root word of shecheleth as “to roar; a lion (from his characteristic roar).”[51] Labdanum was used not only as a perfume and adhesive for the Pharaohs beard but was also used by the Egyptian art of the apothecary

Pharaoh as Atum, a Lion King sphinx

in an incense known as kyphi which was rolled into small balls and burned upon coals of fire. However labdanum could also be an ingredient of a powdered incense. When aged it becomes more fragrant [52]but it also becomes very brittle[53] and hard. [54] The fresh resin is a soft, sticky, and tar-like substance that is sweet, flowery, musky, and reminiscent of honey or ambergris with a hint of sweet leather. Rabban Simeon, the son of Gamliel, said that wine was used to make onycha become hard,[55] thereby admitting that onycha was not a preexistingly hard mollusk shell, but that onycha was a soft resinous material such as is labdanum. Herodotus affirms that it was much used by the Arabians in perfumes.[56] According to Pliny the Elder (23 A.D. – 79 A.D.), who mentions its fragrant smell, it was the extract of an herb called ” ladan.”[57][58] Labdanum was known as “Arabic ladan.”[59]

According to the book of Exodus the Israelites were familiar with the ancient art of the apothecary (or perfumery) of the Egyptians from whom they had just been liberated. Lucas lists labdanum (along with frankincense, myrrh, galbanum, and storax) among the only materials most certain to have been used in ancient Egypt and that labdanum “was abundant in the countries boardering the Mediteranian with which Egypt had intercourse.”[60] He writes that in the Bible “ it is stated that certain merchants carried ladanum into Egypt from Gilead (Genesis, xxxvii : 25, Revised Version) and that Jacob sent ladanum to Egypt as a present to his son Joseph (Genesis, xliii : II Revised Version).” [61] Newberry reports that the ancient Egyptians were aquainted with labdanum as early as the first century.[62] Pliny states that the Ptolemies introduced labdanum into ‘the parts beyond Egypt.”[63] It was known to the Greeks as early as the times of Herodotus (484 BC-425 BC)[64]and Theophrastus (370BC – 285 BC). It was one of the ingredients in a remedy in the ancient Egyptian Materia Medica,[65]and in an ancient Egyptian papyrus dated 1500 B.C. it is used along with hippopontamus fat, as a cure for dandruff.[66] Labdanum was “often made into incense cakes for temple offerings as well as used as a fixative in perfumes.[67] Lucas records an “instance of ladanum having been found in connection with ancient Egypt [which] is a specimen of Coptic incense of the seventh century from Faras near Wadi Halfa.[68]

Martin Luther, in co-operation with Bible expert and Greek scholar Philipp Melanchton, rejected the operculum theory in favor of onycha being a plant product.[69] A commentary footnote in one of the older copies of the Authorized Version seems to agree saying, “The only hint about the onycha that we can find is in the Arabic version, where we meet with ladana, suggesting . . . gum-ladanum.”[70] The Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible plainly defines onycha as the “gum resin obtained from . . . the rockrose, also known as labdanum.[71]

Bochartus, a scholar of profound erudition possessing a thorough knowledge of the principal Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldean and Arabic, argued that onycha was labdanum. It is claimed “Bochartus proves, by many arguments, [onycha ] to be ladanum” [72][73][74]

Abrahams writes that “the Hebrew name shecheleth was translated as ladana, giving rise to labdanum.” [75] The renowned Jewish scholar and writer Saadya (Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon, 882-942), born in Upper Egypt (Fayum) and educated in Fustat (Old Cairo), translated the Bible into Arabic. Saadya, who was a theologian as well as the head Rabbi at the Sura Academy,[76] was equally versed in Hebrew, in Greek, and in Arabic, and knew the people and customs of the whole Arabic region intimately. Saadya’s translation for Shecheleth was the Arabic “Ladana,” and ladana is our ladanum or labdanum.[77] H.J. Abrahams states that “I am sure that Shecheleth (onycha) is a plant product . . . After diligent reflection on all these diverse options, there is little doubt in my mind that onycha of Exodus 30:34 is labdanum. Saadya’s labdanum is not only ideally suited for use in incense, but it is also a product of the Jewish homeland.”[78]

CONCLUSION

Personal research has uncovered an abundance of evidence revealing that onycha was indeed labdanum. Styrax benzoin (which may have been the carrier for the liquid stacte myrrh) and labdanum may have inadvertently switched places in the incense formula by the time of the pre-Herodian Temple. By the time of the second Temple the operculum may have taken the place of being onycha. However, labdanum was the original onycha. No other ingredient that has ever been proposed as the onycha of Exodus 30:32 fits the bill more perfectly than that of labdanum.

SUMMERY

Let us briefly summarize the evidence presented above:

1. Onycha was a sweet spice. === Labdanum is a sweet spice.
2. The Gemara states that only kosher items may be used for the work of Heaven. === Labdanum is a kosher item.
3. The Talmud specifically states that although onycha (shecheleth) is not from a tree, it does grow from the ground and that it is a plant (Kerithoth 6b). === The rockrose bush which produces labdanum is not a tree, it grows from the ground and it is a plant.
4. An ancient Ugaritic text lists onycha among types of vegetation. === Labdanum, the exudation of the rockrose plant, is a product of vegetation.
5. Onycha is an extended connotation of the black stone called the onyx. Shecheleth, the original Hebrew word for onycha, is related to the Hebrew word shechor which means black. === Labdanum is black and has been referred to as black amber.
6. One of the root words for shecheleth, the Syriac shehelta, means to drop, distill, or exude. === Labdanum is the droppings and the exudation of the rockrose plant.
7. Another word related to shecheleth is sahala which means to “peel. === The sticky labdanum resin was peeled off of the instruments used to collect it.
8. The root word in Aramaic means to retrieve. === Labdanum has been retrieved for thousands of years from the beards of goats and the wool of lambs.
9. Rashi wrote that onycha was a type of root. === The root of the Cistus plant is a Jordanian traditional medicine and is still used to this very day by the Arabians.
10. The Greek word onycha means nail or claw. === The leaves of the rockrose plant are shaped like fingernails and have scarlet and black fingernail-like markings on them. Claws, rakes, and combs were used, in antiquity, to collect labdanum and ancient Pharaohs were pictured with this claw crossing their breast.
11. Strong says that the original word shecheleth means: “to roar; as a lion (from his characteristic roar)” or “peeling off by concussion of sound.” === The temperamental goats would cry out when labdanum was retrieved from their hair. The Pharaoh wore a goats beard saturated with labdanum and his voice was the roar of a god to the people.
12. Shecheleth means to roar with sound like a lion. === The ancient Pharaohs were considered to be a lion god, the god in lion form, and he was half lion and half man. The Pharaoh wore labdanum beards and labdanum was considered the food the lion god desired.
13. The rabbi who translated the Bible into Arabic translated onycha as “ladana” which is our labdanum.
14. The learned Rabbi Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon (born 882) claimed labdanum was onycha.
15. The great scholar Bochartus argued that onycha was labdanum. Abrahams wrote onycha was labdanum. Winfred Walker lists onycha as labdanum.
16. Labdanum is recorded in the book of Genesis as being a balm treasured by the Hebrew people. The ancient Egyptians treasured it.
17. Arabians and Jews have used it since antiquity. It is the produce of the Holy land.

These and a multitude of other evidence proves without a shadow of a doubt which substance more closely aligns itself with onycha – the ancient balm called labdanum.

By Dr. Curtis Ward DD MHC

The above article is the result of original research made by Dr. Curtis D. Ward. The article was then overhauled and made acceptable for an encyclopedic article such as can be found at Wikipedia (Dr. Ward IS CWatchman at Wikipedia). A university which illegally used this article in their textbook without Dr. Ward’s permission, were contacted and the information was removed from their textbook. Plagarism is a crime. Always properly source your information.

Below is research Dr. Ward did BEFORE his final discovery that labdanum was indeed the original Onycha (entitled, “Other Contenders for the Identity of Onycha”) and this article  is followed by sources for every quote in all articles on this page.

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The following are some very interesting and informative sites on labdanum: 

 http://labdanum-creta.blogspot.com/

You may purchase labdaum from different companies on the following sites:

http://www.scents-of-earth.com/labdanum.html

http://labdanum-shop.blogspot.com/

If interested in experiencing the ketoret of the second Temple you may order the ketoret in oil form from the following sites:

http://www.biblicaloils.net/categories/Biblical-Pure-Essential-Oils/Ketoret-Oil/

http://www.israelvisit.co.il/beged-ivri/ketoret.htm

If interested in experiencing the ketoret incense of the second Temple you may order the ketoret incense  from the following sites:

http://www.biblicaloils.net/categories/Incense/

http://www.victorie-inc.us/holy_incense.html

To date I have been unable to find the original first Temple ketoret online but I do manufacture it myself.  My upcoming book on the ketoret will include instructions on how to make both the first and second Temple ketoret.

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Other Contenders for the Identity of Onycha

(Below is research Dr. Ward did BEFORE his final discovery that labdanum was indeed the original Onycha)

Operculum

Some writers believe that onycha was the fingernail-like Operculum (gastropod)|operculum, or closing flap, of certain sea snails, including ”Strombus lentiginosus”, ”Murex anguliferus”, ”Onyx marinus”, and ”Unguis odoratus”. It may be the operculum of a snail-like mollusk found in the Red Sea. This operculum is the upper part of a shell called by the Latins ”Conchylium”. These opercula may be of different sizes, but their overall shape is that of a claw, which is the origin of the name ”Unguis odoratus”. The name ”Blatta Byzantina” is occasioned by its having usually been imported from Constantinople, the ancient Byzantium. In antiquity the operculum was used as an ingredient in incense. Writers during the Middle Ages recorded that onycha was rubbed with an alkali solution prepared from the bitter vetch to remove impurities, it was then soaked in the fermented berry juice of the Caper shrub, or a strong white wine, in order to enhance its fragrance.

Benzoin

The internationally renowned Bible scholar Bochart stated, at one point in his research, that onycha was actually benzoin, a gum-resin from the Styrax species.[79] H.J. Abrahams states that the use of benzoin in the Biblical incense is not inconceivable since Syro-Arabian tribes maintained extensive trade routes prior to Hellenism. Styrax Benzoin was available via import to the biblical lands during the Old Testament era. Herodotus of Halicarnassus in the 5th century BC indicates that different kinds of styrax resins were traded. Styrax benzoin was used by the ancient Egyptians in the art of perfumery and incense. The apothecary of Shemot (book of Exodus) would have been familiar with its aromatic uses. S. benzoin has a history steeped in antiquity and was once employed as an incense in Egypt. All the compounds identified in benzoin resin were detected in an archaeological organic residue from an Egyptian ceramic censer, thus proving that this resin was used as one of the components of the mixture of organic materials burned as incense in ancient Egypt. [80] An ancient Egyptian perfume formula (1200 BC) contained benzoin as one of its chief ingredients.[81] The name “benzoin” is probably derived from Arabic lubān jāwī (لبان جاوي, “Javan frankincense”); compare the mid-eastern terms “gum benjamin” and “benjoin”.

The word ‘Storax’ is an alteration of the Late Latin styrax. In the Orphic hymns it is στόρακας or στόρακα. As pointed out earlier the original word shecheleth was replaced with onycha by the Septuagint translation. Onycha in turn is derived from the onyx stone meaning “fingernail.” Conder writes that “the root of the Hebrew word [shecheleth] means to drop or distil, and shecheleth would seem, therefore, to mean some exudation.”[82] Another writer says that the Hebrew shecheleth identifies with the Syriac shehelta which is translated as “a tear or distillation” and that “the context and the etymology seem to require the gum of some aromatic plant . . . The Hebrew word would seem to mean something that exuded, having odorous qualities.”[83] The book of Ecclesiasticus lists storax as one of the ingredients when alluding to the sacred incense of the biblical tabernacle.[84] The Hindustanis use Benzoin to burn in their temples—a circumstance strongly in favor of the hypothesis that benzoin is part of the incense formula of Exodus.[85] The infrequent mention of benzoin by name in antiquity is quite suspicious considering it’s importance in ancient recipes. It stands to reason it must have been known by another name not currently used today. References to it by name are conspicuously missing also from the Old Testament. Callcott writes “It has been suggested [86] that Gum Benzoin, which is not mentioned by any other name in scripture, must be onycha. Its fracture has exactly the lustre required by the name. . . The gum is a secretion of the bark, and is of great efficacy in healing wounds. . . Such are the pretensions of the Benzoin to be looked upon as the true Onycha, which, from the text, as I have already said, must have been some fragrant vegetable gum in itself, of foreign production, and ranking with stacte, and myrrh, and galbanum . . . all which conditions are fulfilled by the Gum Benzoin.” [87] Dioscorides and Galen describe two kinds of bdellium, the second of which is Benzoin, according to Hardouin and Sprengel.[88] Pererra describes benzoin tears as “flattened pieces, some of which are angular, and the larger of them . . . an inch in length.” [89] He says that “externally, these pieces are shiny.” This description most certainly fits well with the interpretation of “onycha” which means “fingernail.” He continues to say many of the pieces “are of an amber or reddish-yellow colour” and continues to describe parts of it as “translucent or milky, and frequently striped.” This is a good description of the appearance of various onyx stones, from which the name onycha is derived. He says that many tears of Styrax benzoin “are translucent, or, in a few cases, almost transparent.” [90] One type of benzoin has “numerous, white, small pieces . . . intermingled, which thereby give the broken surface a speckled appearance” which he calls “marbly.” [91] As mentioned above, although the word onycha has been interpreted as meaning “nail” it is pointed out that nail or claw is actually an extended connotation of onyx, derived from the translucent and sometimes veined appearance of the gemstone onyx. Onyx comes in a variety of colors the most prominent being either the black and veined striped gem or the pinkish translucent striped gem. One related Styrax is black and the benzoin discussed thus far seems to be of the pinkish, translucent sort. Steeping Styrax benzoin tears in wine can enhance it’s fragrance as well as it’s translucent qualities and “shiny” appearance, thus making it appear even more like the onyx gem. Rambam stated that soaking onycha in wine made it beautiful. [92] Benzoin tears look much different than other resins and appears to be small stones rather than the vegetable product that it is.

Rashi writes that onycha was a root from the ground. Benzoin almonds do not resemble the resins they actually are but appear as a rough stoney almonds. Not being native to Palestine they could easily have been mistaken as portions of a root since they do not seem to adequately resemble any other portion of a plant body. However it seems that the root of benzoin was also used . The ancient Greeks and Romans used benzoin root in a seasoning sauce for a meat boiled in sweet herbs.[93]A Roman supper sometimes included shellfish prepared with pepper, cinnamon, and benzoin root.[94]Benzoin root was also used in a recipe for seasoning goose liver.[95]Benzoin root is still used today in incense recipes.[96] Also the resin proper is procured near the root of the tree.[97]Resin procured from the tree during the first three years is referred to as head benzoin. That which is obtained during the next 7 or 8 years is known as the belly benzoin. The third type is called foot benzoin, and is obtained by splitting the tree and scraping the wood of the trunk and roots. [98] This latter source contains impurities. Rambam says that onycha was rubbed with bitter vetch to remove impurities.[99] The Talmud also appears to indicate that onycha came from an annual plant.[100] Benzoin gum is harvested annually,[101] and not being native to Palestine it is possible confusion slipped in identifying it’s annual yield with its life span. Different Styrax trees are often misidentified or referred to as a “bush.”[102] Onycha is said to have been soaked in wine to enhance it’s fragrance which was often done with resins used for incense.[103]

The Hindustanis refer to benzoin as “lobanee” or “luban.” The Arabs refer to it as “luban” or “luban jawi.”[104][105]

The book of Eccesiasticus (Sirach) 24:15 alludes to the sacred incense speaking of “a pleasant odour like the best myrrh, as galbanum, and onyx, and sweet storax, and as the fume of frankincense in the tabernacle.”[106] The storax of antiquity was styrax.[107] Interestingly the writer refers to “onyx” as opposed to “onycha” while referencing styrax as part of the formula. Styrax benzoin may have been the concrete carrier for the liquid myrrh called stacte.[108] [109]

Onycha may have been labdanum.[110] Since myrrh was often mixed with labdanum,[111] [112] throughout many centuries benzoin and labdanum may have inadvertently switched places in the formula.[113] The possibility exists that the onycha of Exodus 30 was labdanum while the onycha of the second Temple was benzoin, with both ingredients still remaining in both formulas.

Winifred Walker writes that the onycha referred to in Exodus 30 is labdanum[114]but later in the same book states that there was also another onycha, which he also equates as a component of the holy incense, which may have been derived from benzoin.[115]

Labdanum and Benzoin mixed

Labdanum and benzoin was often mixed together. The reproduced scent of ambergris is predominantly a mix of labdanum and benzoin. Ambergris was used by the ancient Egyptians as an incense.[116] For centuries, benzoin has been mixed with labdanum, particularly in the Middle East, as an incense to scent homes, places of worship, and as an air purifier. [117] This blend was used by the ancient Egyptians as an incense. Based on some of the latest research from the Edfu temple and a recent study of ceramic dishes used in the preparation of kyphi, it appears that labdanum mixed with benzoin was an important part of the kyphi recipe. [118] It was also part of the formula written about by Nostradamus who said it made “the most supreme perfume, and the longest-lasting that can be made anywhere in the world” and that it acted as an air purifier against disease.[119] It is possible that onycha was this mix of labdanum and Styrax benzoin. Styrax (referred to as storax in antiquity) is mentioned alongside of onycha in Eccesiasticus 24:15 when alluding to the sacred incense. Either onycha and styrax were originally mixed together or styrax was treated with labdanum or by the time of the first temple period a fifth ingredient was added to the ketoret.[120] Styrax benzoin may have been the solid carrier for the clarified liquid labdanum.

Bdellium

Commiphora wightii, syn. C. mukul: Bdellium has been seriously considered as the ancient onycha. The tree, which grows in Arabia, produces a gum that was used in antiquity as an incense. It was one of the substances used in incense in ancient Egypt. As an incense it produces a sweet, spicy smell that some consider similar, although less bitter than, myrrh, combined with the scent of mushroom. The gum was often used as an adulterant of myrrh in the spice trade. The gum rolled into a small ball is known as hadrabolon. It is dry and shining having numerous white spots, like finger-nails in shape.[121] Dioscorides said that bdellium was “the tear of an Arabian tree.”[122][123] He describes bdellium as resembling a fingernail[124] (which is the Greek meaning of onycha). Pliny says that bdellium ” is shining and dry, and covered with numerous white spots resembling the fingernails.”[125][126] This is the appears to be the same bdellium referred to by Damocritus, a medical writer, who was quoted by Saracenus in his Scholia in Dioscoridis, and the same bdellium referred to by Galen, as quoted by Salmasius in his Plinianae Exercitationes. Salmasius states that bdellium is the Arab Molochil (Mukul).[127] When used in sacred rites bdellium was steeped in wine to increase its fragrance[128] (Rambam says that shecheleth, or onycha, was steeped in wine to enhance it’s fragrance).[129] The gum exudes from the cracks in the bark of the trunk near the root (Rashi refers to onycha, or shecheleth, as a kind of root). Bdellium is referred to in the early history of the Bible. Bdellium, like onyx, is the name both of an odoriferous gum and also of a gem or precious stone. “And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone.” (Gen 2:12)

Gum Tragacanth

After this gum is harvested it takes on the appearance of grotesque “fingernails.” It had been used for thousands of years as an ingredient in incense and has been seriously considered a likely candidate for onycha.

Cloves

Cloves or “zipporen” in Hebrew, have been considered as a possibility. In contemporary Hebrew the word means “nails”.

Amber

It was the opinion of K.G. Jacob that shecheleth was amber.[130]

Cuttlefish bone

Cuttlefish bone looks like large fingernails and can also be used in incense.

Spikenard

Spikenard is a well known aromatic that has been suggested.

By Dr. Curtis D. Ward

 

Notes

1. ^Exodus 30:33, 37-38.
2. ^ Strongs #7827
3. ^ Onkelos Shemot 2:10
4. ^ Abrahams, H.J. – Onycha, Ingredient of the Ancient Jewish Incense: An attempt at identification, Econ. Bot. 33(2): 233-6 1979
5. ^ Ex. 11:10-12
6. ^ 11:24
7. ^ Shabbos 28a
8. ^ Abrahams, HJ, Pg 234
9. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature, Volume 7, by James Strong John McClintock
10. ^ Kumph, A mboinischeRaritdten-Kammer, cap. xvii, p. 48 (the German ed. Vienna, 1706); and comp. also Sprcngel, Comment, ad Dioscor. ii, 10; Forskal, Desc.Anim. p. 143 (“Unguis odoratus”); Phiios. Transactions, xvii, 641; Johnston, Introd. to ConchoL p. 77; Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 1388
11. ^ Exodus 30:34b
12. ^ Symbol, i, 422
13. ^ Abrahams, H.J.
14. ^ Abrahams, H.J.
15. ^ James L. Carroll, Elizabeth Siler, “Let My Prayer Be Set Before Thee: The Burning of Incense in the Temple Cult of Ancient Israel”
16. ^ James L. Carroll, Elizabeth Siler
17. ^ Abrahams, H.J. – Onycha, Ingredient of the ancient Jewish incense: An attempt at identification in Econ. Bot. 33(2): 233-6 1979
18. ^ Josiah Conder. The modern traveller (Volume 7)
19. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature, Volume 7, by James Strong John McClintock
20. ^ Hagensick, Carl, Beauties of the Truth, Volume 4, Number 2, May 1993
21. ^ Walker, Winifred, “All the Plants of the Bible,”Doubleday & Company (October 1979)
22. ^ Kerithoth 6b
23. ^ Chemical abstracts, Volume 13, By American Chemical Society,Chemical Abstracts Service, pg.2104)
24. ^ Gil Marks http://www.gilmarks.com/1215.html
25. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature,James Strong, John McClintock
26. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature, Volume 7, by James Strong, John McClintock
27. ^ Jacobs, Louis, The Jewish religion: a companion. pg. 266
28. ^ Sutton, Rabbi Avraham, The Spiritual Significance of the Qetoret in Ancient Jewish Tradition
29. ^ Natural History 12.19.
30. ^ Kerithoth 6b
31. ^ KI SISA – RASHI COMMENTARY, Shemos Book 2: Exodus
32. ^ Age-old Resins of the Mediterranean Region and Their Uses, FN Howes – Economic Botany
33. ^ Gray, Samuel Frederick, A Supplement to the Pharmacopœia and Treatise on Pharmacology in General,pg. 205
34. ^http://www.naturalhealthcrafters.com/essentialoils/ambreine.html (Second paragraph)
35. ^ A Survey of Plants Used in Jordanian Traditional Medicine, 1995, Vol. 33, No. 4 , pp. 317-323, Suleiman Al-Khalil, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
36. ^ Palynological analyses of resinuous materials from the roman mummy of Grottarossa, second century A.D.: a new hypothesis about the site of mummification L. Ciuffarella, aDipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Roma `La Sapienza’, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
37. ^ Abrahams, Onycha…, pg.236
38. ^ Studia Antiqua: The Journal of the Student Society for Ancient Studies, Fall 2002, Volume 2, Number 2
39. ^ Lynne, Mary, Galaxy of Scents: The Ancient Art of Perfume Making
40. ^ Histrenact, Historical Reenactment Database
41. ^http://bible.ort.org/books/glosd1.asp?ACTION=displayletter&char=79&cat=3
42. ^ Newberry, Percy E., The Shepherds “Crook” and the So-Called “Flail” or “Scourge” of Osiris
43. ^http://www.jstor.org/pss/3854018
44. ^http://labdanum-creta.blogspot.com/2006/05/crook-and-flail-in-ancient-egypt.html
45. ^ Rhind, William, A history of the vegetable kingdom: embracing the physiology of plants
46. ^http://www.buffaloah.com/a/archsty/egypt/illus/illus.html ,         46 a-d — (a) Newberry, PE, The Shepherd’s Crook and the So-Called” Flail” or” Scourge” of Osiris, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 1929, pg.9, (b)http://www.bojensen.net/EssentialOilsEng/EssentialOils15/EssentialOils15.htm , (c) Reutter L. Analyses des parfums égyptiens. Annales, Le Caire 1914, (d)  Lucas A. Cosmetics, perfumes and incense in ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. London; 1926
47. ^ Myśliwiec, Karol, The twilight of ancient Egypt: first millennium B.C.E., pg. 12.
48. ^ Massey, Gerald, Ancient Egypt – The Light of the World: A Work of Reclamation And Restitution In Twelve Books
49. ^http://www.aldokkan.com/society/pharaoh.htm
50. ^http://www.art.com/products/p15439682-sa-i3746638/kenneth-garrett-as-a-sphinx-hatshepsut-displays-a-lions-mane-and-a-pharaohs-beard.htm
51. ^ Strong’s Exhaustive Concordence, Hebrew # 7827 & #7826
52. ^http://www.essentiallyoils.com/Newsletters/2000/April_2000_Newsletter/april_2000_newsletter.html
53. ^http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rs1064991.htmlhttp://classroom.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Labdanum
54. ^ King’s American Dispensatory, 1898, by Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D., and John Uri Lloyd, Phr. M., Ph. D
55. ^ Mendes, Abraham Pereira, Prayers for the Intermediate Days on the Tabernacles
56. ^ Natural History Bible; or, description all quadrupeds, birds, fishes [&c.] mentioned Sacred scriptures, THADDEUS MASON HARRIS, D.D.
57. ^ Natural History Bible; or, Description of All Quadrupeds, Birds, Fishes [&c.] Mentioned in the Sacred scriptures, Collected From the Best Authorities, and Alphabetically Arranged by Thaddeus Mason Harris, D.D. of Dorchester, Massachusetts
58. ^ N. H. 1. xii. c. 17
59. ^ O’Dowd, Michael J., The history of medications for women: materia medica woman, pg. 165
60. ^ Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries,pp.114-115, By A. Lucas
61. ^ Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries,pg.116, By A. Lucas
62. ^ P.E. Newberry, in Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, xv (1929), pg.94
63. ^ XII:37
64. ^ Book 3, Chapters 107-82, The History of Herodotus, George Rawlinson, ed. and tr., vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1885)
65. ^ French Observations of Disease and Drug Use in Late Eighteenth Century, by J ESTES – 1984 –
66. ^ Brooklyn Museum Archives. Records of the Department of Public Information. Press releases, 1939 – 1941. 01-02/1940, 025-7,Beauty Formula from Egyptians Papyrus 1500 B.C.
67. ^ The Cosmetic and Perfume Practices of the Ancient Egyptians: Part 2-The Ingredients, by Aimee Bova
68. ^ A. Lucas, Preservative Materials used by the Ancient Egyptians in Embalming, pp. 31-2
69. ^ Abrahams, JH, pg. 234
70. ^ The Holy Bible: According to the Authorized Version, with Original Notes, and the Subjects of Natural History, Costume, and Antiquities from the Best Sources . . . Volume 1, London C. Knight, 22, Ludgate Street, MDCCCXXXVI
71. ^ Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible, H. Lockyer Sr., F.F. Bruce, R.K. Harrison. I.D.B., Plants of the Bible (under onycha) online: http://www.angelfire.com/sc3/wedigmontana/Plantsp4.html#R>R</a> – <a href=
72. ^ A Synopsis of Criticisms Upon Those Passages of the Old Testament in Which Modern Commentators Have Differed From the Authorized Version: Together With … in the Hebrew English Texts V.2 Pt.2 by Richard Arthur Francis Barrett
73. ^ Rimmel, Eugene, The book of perfumes (MDCCCLXV)
74. ^ A dictionary of the natural history of the Bible: By Thaddeus Mason Harris
75. ^ Lis-Balchin, Maria, Aromatherapy science: a guide for healthcare professionals
76. ^ Sanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/saadya/
77. ^ Abrahams, H.J. – Onycha, Ingredient of the ancient Jewish incense: An attempt at identification in Econ. Bot. 33(2): 233-6 1979
78. ^ Abrahams, H.J.
79. ^ Abrahams, H.J. – Onycha, Ingredient of the ancient Jewish incense: An attempt at identification in Econ. Bot. 33(2): 233-6 1979
80. ^ Journal of Chromatography A Volume 1134, Issues 1-2, 17 November 2006, Pages 298-304, Aromatic resin characterisation by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry: Raw and archaeological materials, Francesca Modugnoa, Erika Ribechinia and Maria Perla Colombini, aDipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università di Pisa, via Risorgimento 35-56126 Pisa, Italy
81. ^ Aromatherapy: A Complete Guide to the Healing Art, By Kathi Keville, Mindy Green
82. ^ Josiah Conder. The modern traveller (Volume 7)
83. ^ Hagensick, Carl, Beauties of the Truth, Volume 4, Number 2, May 1993
84. ^ Ecclesiasticus 24:15
85. ^ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature, Volume 9, By John McClintock, James Strong
86. ^ By C.H., Esq.
87. ^ Calcott, Maria, A Scripture Herbal, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, Paternoster-Row, 1842
88. ^ Smith, William George, A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities
89. ^ The Elements of materia medica and therapeutics, Volume 2 By Jonathan Pereira
90. ^ Pereira
91. ^ Pereira
92. ^ Kerithoth 6a; Yad, Kley HaMikdash 2:5
93. ^ Soyer, Alexis, The Pantropheon: A History of Food and Its Preparation in Ancient Times
94. ^ The Eclectic Review: N.S. V. 19 1823 Jan-Jun, University of Michigan Library (April 27, 2009)
95. ^ Remains, Historical & Literary, Connected with the Palatine Counties of Lancaster and Chester, Chetham Society
96. ^http://www.starbornalchemy.com/perfumeoil.html
97. ^ Herb Data New Zealand,Benzoinum, Monograph of the U.S.D. 1926, Edited by Ivor Hughes
98. ^ Herb Data New Zealand,Benzoinum, Monograph of the U.S.D. 1926, Edited by Ivor Hughes
99. ^ Rambam on Maaser Sheni 2:4
100. ^ Kerithoth 6b
101. ^ Herb Data New Zealand,Benzoinum, Monograph of the U.S.D. 1926, Edited by Ivor Hughes
102. ^http://www.laspilitas.com/nature-of-california/plants/styrax-officinalis-californica
103. ^ Kerithoth 6a; Yad, Kley HaMikdash 2:5
104. ^ Langenheim, Jean H. (2003). Plant resins: chemistry, evolution, ecology, and ethnobotany. Timber Press. p. 354.
105. ^ The plants and drugs of Sind: Being a systematic account, with descriptions of the indigenous flora and notices of the value and uses of their products in commerce, medicine, and the arts, by James A Murray
106. ^http://theology101.org/bib/apo/sir024.htm#015
107. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica 1893:Incense of the Old Testament
108. ^ Archaeology Along the Spice Route of Yemen by James A. Sauer and Jeffrey A. Blakely. Araby the blest: studies in Arabian archaeology, By Daniel T. Potts
109. ^http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/
110. ^ Walker, Winifred, “All the Plants of the Bible,”Doubleday & Company (October 1979)
111. ^ Stewart, David, Healing Oils of the Bible
112. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Myrrh
113. ^ Tucker, A.O., Frankincense and Myrrh – Economic botany, 1986
114. ^ Walker, Winifred, All the Plants of the Bible, pg.158
115. ^ Walker, Winifred, All the Plants of the Bible, pg.241
116. ^ Brady, George Stuart; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari, John A. (2002). Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers, Technical Professionals, Purchasing and Production Managers, Technicians, and Supervisors. United States: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 64. ISBN 9780071360760.
117. ^http://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret#aa1e8972ce917uwe
118. ^http://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret#aa1e8972ce917uwe
119. ^ Nostradamus,Traité des fardemens et confitures, Part 1 Chapter XI
120. ^ Taylor’s edition of Calmet’s great dictionary of the Holy Bible, By Augustin Calmet, Charles Taylor, Edward Wells
121. ^ Natural History 12.19
122. ^ “De Materia Medica,” i. 80
123. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia,Morris Jastrow Jr. and Immanuel Benzinger
124. ^ De materia medica, A, 67
125. ^ Report by Dr. M. C. Cooke, on the gums, resins, oleo-resins, and resinous Products in the India Museum, Or Produced in India, By Mordecai Cubitt Cooke, John Forbes Watson
126. ^ Historia Naturalis
127. ^ Report by Dr. M. C. Cooke, on the gums, resins, oleo-resins, and resinous Products in the India Museum, Or Produced in India, By Mordecai Cubitt Cooke, John Forbes Watson
128. ^ Natural History 12.19
129. ^ Kerithoth 6a; Yad, Kley HaMikdash 2:5
130. ^ Encyclopaedia Biblica : a critical dictionary of the literary, political, and religious history, the archaeology, geography, and natural history of the Bible, Edited by T. K. Cheyne, M.A., D.D. and J. Sutherland Black M.A., LL.D.

Revised May, 4, 2010

The Cause of Dr. Herbert Shelton’s Death

Dr. Herbert Shelton is considered to be the father of the modern day Natural Hygiene Movement. Dr. Shelton is also considered to be one of the world’s foremost authorities on fasting. His teachings were highly regarded by Mahatma Gandhi, formerly the pre-eminent leader of all India, and assisted the leader in achieving the historical lengthy fasts that were central to the Indian Independence Movement. Gandhi’s doctors stated that his fasts revitalized his health and added years to his life. Scientists today are beginning to recognize Dr. Shelton’s great contributions to science.

Dr. Herbert Shelton, a strict vegetarian, lived a full and accomplished life and was almost ninety years old when he passed away. Although this is a ripe old age for most people, it is believed he would have lived much longer had he rested more from the exhausting work which ultimately made him vulnerable to the effects of prior injuries.

Dr. Shelton had been a boxer earlier in his life and Parkinson’s is a common disease that boxers suffer from. He also suffered from a severe neck injury. However, his most debilitating injury occurred from a horrific blow to the head when he was kicked by his stallion. His teeth were so badly jarred that he began to loose them one at a time over the years. His health suffered much from this incident. Multiple dazing blows to the head can cause traumatic brain injury which commonly results in the declining mental and physical abilities characteristic of Parkinsonism. Add to this the fact that Dr. Shelton’s family had a very strong genetic tendency to Parkinson’s disease which several close family members, including his own father, had suffered with (This inherited weakness may have been compounded by his overly strict vegetarianism. Although strict vegetarians have been shown to be low risk for cancer, heart disease, and other degenerative diseases, without DHA supplementation they seem to suffer from DHA deficiencies which further predispose them to neurological problems such as Parkinson’s). Complicating his health matters even further he was reportedly a workaholic that drove himself relentlessly and slept very little.

Because of decades of overworking and sleep loss Dr. Shelton never completely overcame the effects of his head and spinal injury and he, in his final years of life, developed a spastic nerve disorder believed to have been Parkinson’s. The workaholism of his lifetime had finally taken its toll. His drive to help people and his consistent dedication to the work of Hygiene is believed to have been the central factor that so adversely affected his health and made him vulnerable to this disease. It never affected his mind, however, which remained incredibly sharp to the very end. Neither was his drive affected which was demonstrated from the fact that he continued his work until the end all the while maintaining a positive attitude.

Dr. Curtis D. Ward

Parkinson’s due to lack of DHA?

Parkinson’s due to lack of DHA?

“Herbert Shelton (1895 – 1985), a naturopath and chiropractor and the influential founder of the American Natural Hygiene Society and Nature Cure movement in America and prolific health writer advocated a natural food vegetarian diet of mostly raw fruits, vegetables and nuts . . . He lived in Texas, was physically fit, grew lots of his own food and ate carefully and fasted periodically. Of course he did not get cancer, he did not get heart disease, but he died of Parkinson’s disease . . .

[Another very] prominent Vegetarian and Health Advocate, [a] leader in the natural health movement and a personal friend to me also suffered from and eventually died from a fall related to his Parkinson’s disease. During his young adult life he embarked on the path of healthy living and vegetarianism . . . he operated a large health food store, one of the first to sell organic fruits and vegetables in America; he became a leader in the health food industry. Of course he was not at risk of cancer or heart disease with his excellent diet, but he developed Parkinson’s which limited the quality of his later years.

When he was developing his Parkinsonian tremors, I ordered blood tests and was shocked to see his blood results showing almost a zero DHA level on his fatty acid test, in spite of adequate ALA consumption from nuts and seeds eaten daily. I had never seen a DHA level that low before. Since that time I have drawn DHA blood levels on other patients with Parkinson’s and also found very low DHA levels.

Was it a coincidence, that these leaders in the natural food, vegetarian movement, who ate a very healthy vegan diet and no junk food would both develop Parkinson’s? I thought to myself–could it be that deficiencies in DHA predispose one to Parkinson’s? Do men have worse ability to convert short chain omega-3 into long chain DHA? Is that why Parkinson’s affects more men than women? Is there evidence to suggest that DHA deficiencies lead to later life neurologic problems? Are there primate studies to show DHA deficiencies in monkeys leads to Parkinson’s? The answer to all of these questions is a resounding, yes.

More than 1 million Americans suffer from Parkinson’s Disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disease that is clinically characterized by resting tremor, muscular rigidity, gait problems and impaired ability to initiate movements. Recent scientific findings show diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids, in particular DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), have a protective effect on this type of neurodegenerative disease. Studies in animals clearly show that supplementation of DHA can alter brain DHA concentrations and thereby modify brain functions leading to reduced risk of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

A recent study examined mice which were exposed to two diets; one group was fed a diet with DHA and other omega-3 fatty acids; while the other group was given ordinary food, lacking DHA. After a period of time they were given a dose of a chemical that causes the same damage to the brain as Parkinson’s disease. The mice on the DHA diet seemed to be immune to the effects of the chemical, whereas the mice that ate ordinary food developed symptoms of the disease. According to the researchers, among the mice that had been given omega-3 supplementation – in particular DHA – omega-3 fatty acids replaced the omega-6 fatty acids in their brains. Due to the fact that concentrations of other omega-3s (LNA and EPA) had maintained levels in both groups of mice, the researchers suggested that the protective effect against Parkinson’s indeed came from DHA.

Another conclusion drawn from this finding is that a brain containing a lot of omega-6 fatty acids may create a fertile ground for developing Parkinson’s disease. These fatty acids, are abundant in foods rich in either vegetable oil or animal fat, which we already know contribute negatively to our health.

Another study observed the effect of DHA on monkeys treated with MPTP, a drug that induces Parkinson’s like symptoms, and the results suggested that DHA can reduce the severity of, or delay the development of these drug-induced symptoms and therefore can offer therapeutic benefits in the treatment of Parkinson’s.

Overall, this research provides evidence that DHA deficiencies can leave us vulnerable to developing diseases like Parkinson’s and Alheizmer’s. If you are a nutritarian, flexitarain, vegan, or vegetarian and you are not taking DHA or confirming your levels are adequate with blood work you are being negligent, and potentially increasing your risk of such a disease in later life. All the good efforts on proper nutrition can be undone with one deficiency such as Vitamin D, B12, or DHA. I see this every week in my practice.

History repeats itself: Some authors, doctors and leaders of the vegan movement today are heavily biased towards the idea of not needing these supplements. They simply give inadequate nutritional advice and in spite of all the science they still [ridicule] taking long-chain omega-3 DHA. They are risking the quality of their own lives and that of their followers.

Likewise, I have seen so many vegan-promoting doctors and authors negate the need for taking B12, as well as dismiss the need to take vitamin D, stating minimal sunshine is enough. They also deny the need for omega-3 supplementation. There is so much scientific literature available today pointing to the contrary, however, this irresponsible information keeps radiating from the podium of lecture halls. . . .

Don’t be fooled into thinking that by merely eating right you are doing all you can do to protect your health. People must be made aware that by neglecting to take the supplements that are essential to assuring nutritional excellence, they are putting themselves in harm’s way. Specifically, not taking DHA, B12 and vitamin D can be potentially dangerous and even life threatening.”

(Excert from: http://stanford.wellsphere.com/general-medicine-article/leaders-of-the-vegan-movement-develop-parkinson-s-case-studies/648469)

Dr. Shelton’s court case

Many credible physicians have been dragged into court on charges of negligent homicide (some frivolous, others justifiably).  Shelton’s vulnerability was his defiance of accepted medical opinions of the day and his promotion of innovative fasting remedies. In 1942, Shelton was charged with negligent homicide but the case was never tried and charges were completely dropped.

In 1978 one of Dr. Shelton’s patients died while under the care of Dr. Vivian V. Vetrano. He had a pre-existing heart condition and alledgedly died from a heart attack. The patient was drinking only two cups of water a day while under Dr. Vetrano’s care and showed signs of dehydration. She testified that she attempted to have the decedent break his fast but that the patient refused to. The following explanation was given by Dr. Vetrano :  “This patient had been on cortisone for years and years, I told him he couldn’t come until he had been off cortisone for 6 months, and then a month later he called and said ‘I just cannot do it at home, I want to come now’. Unfortunately I said yes. But when he got there he didn’t want to break his fast when I told him to, he got into a crisis and he needed cortisone to get through the crisis. He didn’t bring his prescription, so I took him to the hospital. He was going into shock because you cannot take a crisis without a lot of adrenaline. There I told them he had been on cortisone for years and I said he needed cortisone, but they didn’t listen, they just waited around, and he died. And then they blamed it on me and Shelton’s Health School.”              It took over two years for the court to reach a verdict. Record, vol. 2, at 419 states “Suffice it to say that the jury was presented with sufficient evidence to support the conclusion of negligence on the part of Dr. Vetrano.”  Records also report that she waited until “the eleventh hour before contacting” the hospital.   Dr. Vetrano was charged with negligence not due to the fasting method, but due to the charge that she failed to transport the patient to a medical clinic in a timely manner. Although Dr. Vetrano was the individual supervising this fast, it was Dr. Shelton’s facility where this took place and, of course, the lawsuit was placed against him also.

Neither Dr. Shelton nor his method of fasting was shown to be the cause of the heart attack. Dr. Shelton supervised THOUSANDS of fasts, many of which were total fasts (water only) lasting more than ninety days. Dr. Shelton’s success cases far outnumbered the causality in question — a record most medical practitioners cannot boast of.

Practitioners exist in our twenty first century that use many of the methods Dr. Shelton used and they are not being jailed and fined for practicing medicine without a license. Alternative medicine is more accepted today than it was in Dr. Shelton’s day. Many of the methods he pioneered are now being proven valid in the laboratory.

While fasting institutes still abound in the twenty first century, it is the medical healthcare providers that are routinely dragged into court for the adverse effects of medical malpractice.

1) The Institute of Medicine reports that there are:

· 98,000 deaths / year from negligent homicide by medical healthcare providers

2) A recent study published in The Journal of The American Medical Association (2000:284:94) by Barbara Starfield, MD, MPH, showed that in the U.S. there are:

· 12,000 deaths/year from unnecessary surgery

· 7,000 deaths/year from medication errors in hospitals

· 20,000 deaths/year from other errors in hospitals

· 80,000 deaths/year from nosocomial infections in hospitals

· 106,000 deaths/year from adverse effects of medications

This totals up to 323,000 deaths annually from iatrogenic causes and negligent homicides. 225,000 iatrogenic causes make iatrogeny the third leading cause of death in the United States, second only to heart disease and cancer. The frightening reality of the situation is that this does not include disabilities and disorders; just deaths in hospitalized patients. More than four times as many people die in one year from doctors’ mistakes than died in the entire war in Vietnam. A conservative estimate of 98,000 annual deaths are negligent homicide from certified medical healthcare providers (Institute of Medicine, 2000).

Dr. Shelton supervised thousands of fasts with no adverse effects and thousands of cures. These success cases should speak for themselves.

Curtis D. Ward